Clinical Patholgy Week 1&2

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Aplasia-

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failure of cell production

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Apoptosis-

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program cell death

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Atrophy-

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decrease in the size of an organ or tissue results from a decrease in the mass of preexisting cells

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Autophagy-

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process of ingestion of the cell own organelles that are senescent or damaged

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bax-

bcl-2-

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gene product that facilitate apoptosis

gene product that inhibits apoptosis

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Caseous necrosis-

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occurs as part of granulomatous inflammation,combines features of both coagulative and liquefactive necrosis, cheese-like consistency

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Caspases-

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is the name given to molecules that split proteins by acting between the aminoacids Cysteine and Aspartic acid.The caspases disrupt several essential molecules such as cytoplasmic cytoskeletal proteins, nuclear proteins and DNA-repair enzymes. The activation of caspases is now believed to signal the "Point of no Return"

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Chaperones-

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substances are produced by normal cells and participate in functions such as infolding and dissaggregation of proteins or in protein transport across the cell cytoplasm, i.e. hsp 60 and hsp 90. HSP participate in myocardial or brain infarcts to limit or prevent widespread necrosis.

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Coagulation necrosis-

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results due to cut off of blood supply, heart and kidney

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Calcificication,

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Pathologic calcification occurs in two forms: dystrophic calcification and metastatic calcification. In either, calcium salts and smaller amounts of iron, magnesium and other mineral salts accumulate as fine white granules or clumps which are often gritty. On H&E stains they have a basophilic, amorphous granular appearance

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Councilman body

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describes a morphologic change of involution and shrinkage of affected cells and cell fragments during apoptotis resulting in small round eosinophilic masses containing remnants

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Fat necrosis

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Occurs in two forms traumatic fat necrosis , severe injury due to high fat content
also enzymatic fat necrosis, due to hemorrhagic pancreatitis

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fibrinoid necrosis

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deposits of fibrin-like proteinaceous material in the arterial walls ,is often associated with immmune-mediated vascular damage

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Fas ligand

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cell surface receptor part of extrinsic pathway of initiation of apoptosis, this ligand signals a series of events that involve activation of caspases

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Free radical

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A free radical is a compound with a one or more unpaired electrons in an outer orbital. This fact makes free radicals quite unstable and provides them with greatly enhanced capacity to react with cellular macromolecules. Free radicals are generated by exogenous factors such as ionizing radiation, sunlight exposure, air pollutants, cigarette smoke, alcohol and chemicals and by endogenous reactions, mainly oxidative. Free radicals are of important biological significance: they occur especially as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen-centered radical species.

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Gangrenous necrosis

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type of ischemic coagulative necrosis freqeuntly in lower limb;when there is superimposed infection with a liquefactive component, the lesion is called "wet"

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Gel electrophoresis of DNA

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A cell that has undergone apoptosis will show laddering pattern of DNA on the gel and in necrosis of a cell with show a smear

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Gluthathione peroxidase

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enzyme found in the mitochondria that protects the cell against free radical damage

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Hayflick theory of aging

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the theory that cells have predetermined genetic program and they stop dividing and become senescent after about 50 doublings

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Hemochromatosis

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more extensive accumalation of hemosiderin, often within parenchymal cells, with accompanying tissue damage, scarring, and organ dysfunction

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Hemosiderosis

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accumulation of hemosiderin, primarily within macrophages, without associated tissue or organ damage

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Heterophagy

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Digestion within a cell of a substance taken in by phagocytosis from the cell's environment.

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Hyperplasia

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(hint: note differences from hypertrophy) an increase in cell number with resultant increase in organ size, which occurs only in cells capable of division -

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Hypertrophy (definition and mechanisms)-

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an increase in cell size again with an increase in organ size

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Hypoxic injury-

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i) loss of blood supply to an organ or system because of luminal obstruction of a blood vessel by atherosclerosis or by a blood clot, ii) inadequate blood oxygenation, as in certain cardio-respiratory diseases such as pulmonary emphysema and, iii) loss of the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood as in anemia or in carbon monoxide intoxication

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Kartagener syndrome

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There is impaired motility of ciliary elements of the respiratory epithelium resulting in recurrent chronic infections such as sinusitis, bronchitis and bronchiectasis

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Karyolysis-

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fading of chromatin material

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Karyorrhexis-

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fragmentation of chromatin

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Mallory bodies (alcoholic hyalin)-

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an accumulation of prekeratin-containing intermediate filaments.

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Metaplasia-

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a change in cell differentiation

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Necrosis -

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necrosis is the sum of degradative and inflammatory reactions occurring after tissue death cause by injury: it occurs within living organisms

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Pyknosis-

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chromatin clumping and shrinking with increased basophilia

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p53-

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The p53-gene through its protein has been identified as activator of a pathway leading to mammalian cell apoptosis

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Ubiquitin (hint: understand role in elimination of denatured proteins)-

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appears to tag certain proteins destined to be destroyed by proteinases

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what are the causes of caseous necrosis?

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Tuberculosis, leprosy, and fungal infections

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what is the origin of epitheloid cells?

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Transformed macrophages

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what is granulation tissue?

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New small blood vessels, fibroblasts,and mononuclear cells in edematous extracellular matrix

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what is a granuloma?

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Circumscribed collection of epitheloid cells, usually surrounded by lymphocytes; it is a form of chronic inflammation

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Population statistics

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deals with characterizing a set of values in terms of a central value and the extent of the spread of all of the values

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Precision test

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is determined by conducting the test may timess on a single specimen. the mean and standard deviation of the set of results is calculated and precision is expressed as the coeffient of variation =CV= 100* SD/mean

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PVN

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predictive value of a negative(normal) test result

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PVP

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predictive value of a positive ( abnormal)test result

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Eff

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efficinecy of a result

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leukocyte activation

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are caused by chemotactic agents

1. degranulation and secretion of enzymes

2.activation of an oxidative burst

3. production of arachadonic acid metabolites

4.modulation of leukocyte adhesion molecules

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suppurative inflammation

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is manifested by presence of large amounts of pus consisting of neutrophils, necrotic cells, and edema fluid

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thromboxane A2

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synthesized by platelets from cyclo-oxygenase pathway; vasoconsticts and stimulates platelet aggregation

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transudate

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non-inflammatory edema fliud that results form altered intravascular hydrostatic or osmotic pressure;has low protein content

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opsonins

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a substance that promotes the phagocytosis of antigen by binding to them.They include:
IgG: specifically the Fc portion
C3b:
Collectins:binds to microbial cell wall sugar groups

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Weibel-Palade bodies

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In non-activated endothelial cells, P-selectin is found primarily in intracellular weibel-palade bodies.

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exudates

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edema fluid from increase in vascular permeability as a result of inflammation, high protein content,

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Congenital heart defects in Down Syndrome

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endocardial cushion defects commonly known as atrionventricular canal defects

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Edwards Syndrome

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Trisomy 18

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Patau's syndrome

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Trisomy 13, note the cleft lip and palate

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Barr Body

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describes as the sex chromatin, is adjacent to inner surface of nuclear membrane. The number of Barr bodies present in cell nuclei is one less than number of X chromosome. So females have two X chromosome, one barr body

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Lyonization

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inactivation early in development of the embryo, of all but one of the X chromosomes in each cell, depends on the Xist gene

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Klinefelter's syndrome

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most common chromosomal disorder associated with male hypogonadism and infertility. 47XXY

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Klinefelter's syndrome features

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-decreased testostrone production
- increased pituitary gonadotropins from loss of feedback inhibition and increased estrogen

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what syndrome is the most important cause of primary amenorrhea?

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Turner's syndrome

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short stature
infertility
webbing of neck
coarctation of aorta
peripheral lymphedema
horseshoe kidney(two fused together)

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Turner's syndrome

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fetal hydrops

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seen in Turner's syndrome, body cavities are filled with fluid

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XYY Syndrome

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tend to be tall, with severe acne, mildly retarded, aggressive

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XXX or Superfemale

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may show mild retardation

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fragile X- amplification of triplet repeat CGG

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-due to defectiv gene FRM1
-affected males are severely retarded and have characteristic large testes (Macroorchidism)

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Anticipation

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-associated diseases get worse form generation to generation as amplification continues

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Genomic Imprinting

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refers to a difference in the expression of a gene defect depending on whether is transmitted from the father or mather

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Uniparental disomy

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-inheritancce of both chromosomes of a pair from one parent

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hemorrhage

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extravasation of blood due to rupture of blood vessels

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subarachnoid hemorrhage

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- bleeding into the subarachnoid space usually from bleeding of the bridging veins

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petechiae

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-hemorrhages in tissues less than 3mm in diameter

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purpura

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-hemorrhage in tissues more than 3mm but less than 10mm in diameter

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ecchymoses

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hemorrhage in tissues more than 10mm in diameter

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hematoma

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localized hemorrhage occurs within a tissueor organ

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active hyperemia

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-localized arteriolar dilation such as in exercise or blushing

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passive congestion (passive hyperemia)

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-caused by obstructed venous return or increased back pressure from congestive heart failure

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acute passive congestion

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-is passive congestion with rapid onset, such as seen in acute inflammation or sudden heart failure

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chronic passive congestion

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-due to prolonged venous outflow such as with chronic heart failure or narrowing of mitral valve

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heart failure cells

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-presence of hemosiderin-laden macrophages called heart failure cells in the lung suggest that blood has been present for a few days and that congestion in chronic

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thrombosis

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-intravascular coagualation of blood, causing interruptuon of blood flow
- endothelial injury
-stasis or turbulence of blood flow
-blood hypercoagulablity

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embolus

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-intravascular mass carried away by the blood stream to a site remote from its origin
-may consist of blood clots, gas,amniotic fluid, fat, bone marrow fragments, microorganisms, tumor cells

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saddle embolus

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-obstructing the bifurcation of the pulmonary artery