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211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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recurrent laryngeal n. injury
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hoarse voice
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fontanels
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in skull
unossifed remnants of membranes in newborns major fontanels are anterior posterior mastoid and sphenoid which are ossifed w/in 6 months+ |
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congenital torticollis (wry neck)
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most common type of torticolis
fibromatosis of sternocleidmastoid m. head turns to side and face away from affected side stiffness of neck due to fibrosis and shorterning of sternocleidmastoid injury during delivery can cause this therapy: division of muscle below XI n. or from its distal attachment |
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spasmodic torticollis (wry neck)
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cranial dystonia
btw 20-60 yrs unkown cause may involve bilateral neck muscles especially sternocleidomastoid m unilateral deviation of head therapy: mytoomy or section of spinal accessory n. and upper ant. roots |
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bell's palsy
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injury to facial n. , paralysis
ex: mumps |
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accessory n. exam
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sternomastoid
ask patient to roate head against resistance, compare power and muscle on each side, compare each side with patient pulling head forward against resistance (left sterno. turns head to right. ) trap-ask patients to shrug shoulder against resistance, comapre each side |
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goiter
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enlargement of thryoid gland
endemic in areas w/ iodine deficiency may disturb traches, esophagus and laryngeal nerves exophtalmic goiter is due to excess production of thyroxin |
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thryoidectomy
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removal of thyroid due to cancer
inadvertent removal of parathryoid glands leads to tetany, severe convulsion and muscle spasm due to decrease in serum ca, and may lead to immeiate respiratory failure |
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coniotomy
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puncturing cricothyroid lig to allow air through airways artifically when there's an obstruction of glottis or glottal edem
cut cartothryoid lig (very close to vocal cords, may be injured) |
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tracheotomy
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create an adquate airway in patients w/ an upper respiratory tract obstruction or respiratory failure
emergency one might be necessary whe laryngeal opening (rima glottidis) is closed completly due to spasm of laryngeal muscles following mucosal irritation Trachetomy-cut thryoid gland including ima thyroid artery which may cause severe bleeding and put oxygen tube there |
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arthritis
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inflammation or degeneration of the joints accompanied by pain, swelling and stiffness
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rheumatoid arthritis
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autoimmune disease resulting in severe inflammation of joints
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osteoarthritis
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degenerative condition involving articular cartilages, primarily in weight-bearing joints
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gouty arthritis
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Gout is caused by too much uric acid in the blood
The most common sign of gout is a nighttime attack of swelling, tenderness, redness, and sharp pain in your big toe . |
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first rib
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rarely fractured--would danger vessels
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middle ribs
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most commonly fractured
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lower rib
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fractures may damage pleura and abdominal viscera (kidney, liver, spleen)
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flail chest
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multi ribs fracture, thoracic wall moves freely (paradoxical), very painful w/ impaired vetilation
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cervical rib
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thoracic outlet syndrom
nor development of costal process, compression to subclavian a. and lower brachial plexus (pain) |
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costal cartilage
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by age, calcification of costal cartilage leads to loss of thoracic cage elasticity which restricts respiratory movements
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sternum
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in males body is longer, narrower and slimmer
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sternal puncture
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bone marrow needle biopsy for transplantation or cytologic analysis
in midline in body of sternum btw 2-3 ribs ttachments, never try in lower 2/3 of sternal body |
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median sternotomy
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in coronary bypass surgery
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congenital anomalies of sternum
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complete sternal cleft-associated w/ ectopia cordis
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intercostal m.s
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m.s of abdominal wall are used in forced experiation
ext/int/inter interal, subcostalis, traversus m. |
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coarctation of aorta
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all arteries are dilated, including:
ant. and post. internal thoracic a. ,musculophrenic a. , superior epigastric a. |
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opening the thoracic cavity
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when the ant. part of the thoracic cavity is removed, one can see the lungs covered by pleura on the sides and the heart covered by pericardium in the middle, this space in the middle is called mediastinum-space btw right and left lungs
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COSTODIAPHRAGMATIC AND COSTOMEDIASTINAL RECESSES
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BORDERS OF LUNG DON'T EXTEN AS FAR DOWN AS THE PARIETAL PLEURA
LUNG IS 4 CM ABOVE COSTODIAPHRAGMATIC RECESS IN QUIET EXPIRATION |
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costodiaphragmatic angle
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should appear sharp in radiography of chest, if blunt here might be excess fluid, blood tumor
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sucking pneumothorax
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air enters and leaves pleural cavity, mediastinal flutter (mediastinum sifter toward normal side of inspiration and shifted to injured side during expiration)
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tension pneumothorax
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air enters pleural cavity but not leaving it.
mediastinal shift: mediastinum is shifted toward normal side, increased infrathoracic pressure patient has dyspnea (trying to get air) and or cyanosis (turning blue) hyper-resonant percussion tone, radiolucent area in lung, in radiograph |
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inadvertent damage to pleura
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catheterization of subclavian v. brachial plexus block, injuries in neck over clavicle or during kidney surgery
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pleural effusion
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excess fluid in pleural cavity
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hydrothorax
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serous fluid in pleura
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pyothorax
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infection, pus in pleural cavity
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pleuritis (pleurisy)
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inflammation of pleura
pain only if parietal pleura is involved |
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puncturing intercostal space
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go to inferior rib
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thoracocentesis
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pleural tap-drain pleural fluid in pathological conditions performed posterior to midaxillary line while patient is sedated
determine fluid level and go 1/2 interocostal spaces below, but not below 9th intercostal space or danger to injur liver on right side |
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intercostal n. block
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in herpes Zoster (shingles) or rib fractures
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blood supply parietal pleura
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intercostal a. and lungs and internal thoracic a.
venous drainage: to corresponding veins |
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pleural lymph drainage
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nodes on anterior aspect of thoracic wall and nodes at hilium of the lung
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tributaries of pulmonary v.
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found in periphery btw adjacent bronchopulmonary segments
surgical landmarks |
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pulmonary circulation
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deoxygenated blood from right ventricle of heart goes into pulmonarytrunk and pulmonary a.s and to R and L lungs
there the blood is oxygenated and comes back to heart (left atrium) by means of 2 pulm. vessel |
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venous blood exchange
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blood-air barrier
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lung lymphatic drainage
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superficial (subpleural) and deep lymphatic nodes in the hilum
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infections of lungs*
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pneumonia
tuberculosis -miliary and reactivation lung abcess- |
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bronchiectasis
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dilation of bronchi, scarring
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atelectasis
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collapse of alveoli due to infection or tumor
-surfactant deficiency |
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pulmonary thromboembolism
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blood clots in lung originating mainly from veins of lower limb
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pancoast's tumor
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apical lung tumor
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bronchiolar carcinoma
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from epithelium of bronchial tree
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bronchogenic cc
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tumor of mucosa of the bronchi, upper lobes
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right atrium blood supply
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receives blood from sup. vena cava, inf. vena cava and coronary sinus
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atrial septal defect
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asd-
blood from L sides goes to R side causes right heart enlargment |
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blood pressure in aorta
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120/80
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bood pressure in pulmonary a.
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25/10
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left ventricle
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thicker than r. ventricle b/c it works more
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rheumatic fever
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acute inflammation as a result of complication of chronic tonsilitis, pharyngitis by streptococcus infection
characterized by arthritis, chorea, skin involvement (erythema) sub cutaneous nods and carditis nods of the valve cause irregular blood flow, valvular incompetence (blood regurgitation) causing murmur may case stenosis (mitral stenosis) |
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intrinisc impulse-conducting system of heart
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heart contains a psecialized tissue (impulse-conducting system) which spontaneously generated rhtymical impulses which conducts them to stimulate the rest of the heart muscle to contract
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coronary a.s an anastomotic connections
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functional end arteries
1. do not have large precapillary anastoosis to provide sufficient alt. blood supply to myocardium if main a. is blocked sudden major blockage of coronary v.s or branches leads to myocardial infarction *heart attacks can be caused by blockage of small a.s a few anastomoses exist btw coronary v.s, including connection btw ant. and post. interventricular a.s or r. coronary a. and circumflex a. |
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l. coronary a.
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in 40% of cases, the sa-node and a-v node and bundle are supplied by l. coronary a.
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venous drainage of heart
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main cardiac veins drain into coronary sinus
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sites of ausculation
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aortic valve: right2nd intercostal space (parasternal)
pulm valve: left2nd intercostal space tricuspid valve: left 5th rib, at sternal junction mitral valve, left 5th intercostal space in midclavicular line |
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cardiac cycle
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systole and diastole
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systole
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1. isovolumetric contraction
at the beginning all valves are closed pressure rise in ventricles 2. ejection perior: blood is ejected into aorta (cardiacout put) the IV pressure decreases and aorticvalve closes |
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diastole
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isovolumetric relaxation
av and aortic valves are closed, intraventricular pressure drops below atrium and 2. filling time: atrioventricular valve opens and blood goes to the ventricle passively and only at the end of this period there is atrial systole (contraction) |
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cardia
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where esophagus enters stomach
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venous drainage of esophagus
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inferior thryoid v. , azygous, hemiazygous, gastric v.s
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port-caval anastomossis
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gastric v.s drain into portal v. therefore there's a link btw portal and systemic circulation
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esophageal varices
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in liver cirrhosis
innervation sympathic and parasympathetic (vagus |
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azygous venous sytem
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azygos, heiazygous and accessory hemiazygous veins
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lympathetic system
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thoracic duct ascends along vertebral bodies and empites into venous circulation
junction of l int. jug and l. subclavian veins |
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cisterna chyli
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located at union of lumbar and intestinal trunks (l1-l2 vertebrae) drains 3/4 of body
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lymphatic system
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lymphatic vs collect lymph (xcess tissue fluid and blood proteins from loose connective tissue)
carry this fluid to great veins in neck, fluid flows only toward heart |
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bursitis and tendinitis
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inflammation of bursa or tendon
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sprain
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joint injury -stretching/tearing ligaments that reinforce a joint, can require repair/reoval
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housemaid's knee
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prepatellar bursitis
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student's elbow
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olecranon bursitis-development of bursa on the posterior aspect of elbow
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lyme disease
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arthritis caused by bacteria via tick bites
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RICE treatment
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for sprains-rest, ice, compression, elevation
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thoracic cage in respiration
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widens thorax during inspiration and returns to normal size during expiration
faciliated by: mobility in cosstovertebral joints, movement at manubriosternal joint, elevation of sternum by sterocleidomastoid and scalene m.s, elasticity of costal cartilages, increased yphosis of thoracic curvature in vert. column, and function of respiratory m.s |
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muscles which elevate thoracic cage
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scalene m.s, sternocleidomastoi,d interocstal, pectoralis major and minor
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gynecomastia
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enlarged male breasts--
may develop during neonatal stage from mom's hormones, adolescene or older people may be small lump under areola and mass can be tender secondary to hormonal inbalances can be from klinefelters, cirrhosis, malnutrion, testicular suprarenal caner, gynecomastia, drugs, pubertal abnormality |
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infraclavicular n. block
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performed for anesthesia for arm, forearm, hand or post-surgical analgesia for arm
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intrapleural pressure
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disturbed intrapleural pressureimportant for expansion of thorax lungs-can be measured with balloon catheteter
neg at rest due to opposing forces of lungs trying to collpase and chest wall tring to expand inspiration-pressure drops futer b/c of increase in volume and elastic recoil strength of lungs expiration returns to value and rest and repeats pressure can be measured |
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pneumothorax
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-air gets into pleural cavity from injury or pulmonary disease which may rupture visceral pleura so air from lungs goes to pleural cavity
pos pressure leads to collpase of lung and interfers w /respiration surgical emergency, chest tube inserted ant. in 2nd intercostal spaceto reduce pneumothorax if fluid is present go to 5-6th space near posterior axillary line |
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pleural effusion
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is excess fluid that accumulates in the pleura, the fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs. Excessive amounts of such fluid can impair breathing by limiting the expansion of the lungs during respiration
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hemothorax
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s a collection of blood in the space between the chest wall and the lung (the pleural cavity). Symptoms: Anxiety; Chest pain; Rapid heart rate; Restlessness; Shortness of breath
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pyothroax
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s an accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity. Most pleural empyemas arise from an infection within the lung (pneumonia), often associated with parapneumonic effusions. There are three stages: exudative, fibrinopurulent and organizing. In the exudative stage, the pus accumulates. This is followed by the fibrinopurulent stage in which there is loculation of the pleural fluid (the creation of pus pockets). In the final organizing stage, scarring of the pleural space may lead to lung entrapment.[2]
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chylothorax
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is a type of pleural effusion. It results from lymphatic fluid (chyle--b/c of injury to thoracic duct) accumulating in the pleural cavity.
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inferior border of lungs
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situated at level of 6th rib in midclavicular line, 8th rib in midaxillary line and 10th rib posteriorly in scapular line
infeiror border in lungs of kids is one rib higher than adults |
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respiratory diseases
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involve airways, paraenchyma of lung, pulmonary vessels, pleura, and nerves of muscles of respiration
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chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
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less air flows in and out of airways b/c the elastic quality of airways is lot
increase in airway resitance (esp. experiation) due to narrowing of lumen can origanate from lumen of airways toue to increase mucus production (chronic bronchitis) or wall of airways including smooth m. hypertrophy (asthma) destruction of lung parachyma outside airways ,causing narrowing during expiration due to loss of radial traction (emphysema) |
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asthma
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inflmmation and edma of bronical wall, hyperplasia of smooth muscles leading to tightened bronchi and bronchioles, increased mucus production which leads to contriction and narrowing of lumen
fev1 reduced |
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emphysema
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enlargement of distal air spaces and damage to lung and alveolar tissue
deficiency of alpha 1 antitrypsin enzyme in panacinar emphysema leading to destruction of alveolar walls, patients are "pink puffers" due to ehavy breathing and pink color, ,difficulting exhaling and present w/ dyspnea have thin barrel shapped chest airspace enlargement, wall destruction |
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chronic bronchitis
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inflammation and swelling of brochial wall
increased mucus secretion, hypertrophy of seromucuos glands and scarring of term. airways which leads to narrow of small airways "blue bloaters" frequent coughing, sputum produciton, bacterial infection muscual, barrel shapped chest related to cigs or inhalation of irritans |
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mottled lines
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marks surface of lungs
he mottled appearance of the lungs that shows up in a chest x-ray is due to what is known as "pulmonary infiltration." Infiltration refers to the abnormal presence of granulomas in the lung tissue. Depending on how severe and extensive the pulmonary infiltration is, it can cause various respiratory symptoms. |
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diagnostic tests for pulmonary disease
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The forced vital capacity (FVC). FVC is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled (breathed out) with force, and is an indicator of lung size, elasticity, and how well the air passages open and close.
The forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1). FEV1 is the maximum volume of air exhaled in 1 second. Airflow is considered to be limited if the outflow of forced exhalation stays low over the course of 1 second. People with COPD have a decline in FEV1 over time. FEV1 is measured as "percent of predicted:" |
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signs and symptoms of pulmonary disease
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diff. exhaling, thing barrel chest, pink or blue
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pericarditis
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inflammation of serous pericardium, due to cardiac or systemic disease,s cancer spreading from a nearby lung tumor lead to increased amounts of pericardial fluid
may compress and restricthearts movements, friction rubbing and severe pain behind/above sternum |
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pericardiocentesis
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removal of excess fluid from pericardial cavity by entering 5th or 6th intercostal space on l side
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pericardinal effusion
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("fluid around the heart") is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pericardial cavity. Because of the limited amount of space in the pericardial cavity, fluid accumulation will lead to an increased intrapericardial pressure and this can negatively affect heart function. When there is a pericardial effusion with enough pressure to adversely affect heart function, this is called cardiac tamponade.
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cardiac tamponade
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blood or fluid collects in the pericardium. This prevents the ventricles from expanding fully. The excess pressure from the fluid prevents the heart from functioning normally.
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ventricular septal defect
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one of most common whose cause is unkown, may be genetic
intraventricular septum isn't complete opening btw ventricles allow for l to r shutning of blood due to higher pressure in l side which results in excess fatigue during exertion excess blood on r side increases the poulm blood flow and leads to pulm hypertension which in later stages causes thining of pulm arteries and arterioles--increase pulm resistance in systemic circulation which may result in r to l shunting of blood called eisenmenger's syndrome |
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eisenmenger's syndrome
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atrial septal defect, patent ducts arteriorsus or perisstant trucus arteriosus or ventricular septal defect can lead to this:
r to l shunting of blood |
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pathology of valves
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inflammation of cusps or infections may lead to scar formation and narrowing of valve orifice=stenosis
incompetency or insufficiency of valve occurs when valve is unable to close properly |
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stenosis
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formation and narrowing of valve orifice
may lead to incompetency (insufficency)so valve can't close properly |
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atrial flutter
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supraventricular arrhythmias characterized by rapid atrial waves (300/min)
in atrial flutter, the atrial waves are so rapid that the av node is unable to respond until the 2nd 3 4th wave it recieves results in a saw-toothed baseline appearance increased heart rate is tolerated in normal conditions such as exercise, but indies w/ heart disease or exercise intolerance may present w/ shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, nausea and other symptoms prolonged atrial flutter may lead to heart failure |
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atrial fibrillation
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400-700/min
wavy baseline and absence of P wave only small islets of atria are depolarized and only partial contraction of atria takes place electrical activity called fibrillatory waves is irreg and leads to random transmission of impulses into av node ventricular rates are slower )160-180 beats/min) than tachycardia via atrial flutter patients may have palpitations or angina pectoris or developing congestive heart failure and syncope atrial enlargement as a result of mitral stenosis or other heart diseases may lead to atrial fibrilation |
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cardiac digitalis
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drug to treat atrial flutter/fibrilation to decreased excitability of the av node and normalize ventricular function
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ventricular tacycardia
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3 or more ectopic beats of ventricular origin in succession at a rate >100bpm
QRS compmlex in ECG may be of the same or varying shapes and may be widened and distorted sinus P waves can sometimes be recognized btw QRS complexes * may be life treatening and difficult to distinguish from less serious supraventricular tachycardia can associate w/: cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disase (mitral valve prolapse) treat: lidocaine or procainamide in hemodynamically stable patients |
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ventricular fibriliation
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most serious cardiac arrhythmia
can lead to cardiac arrest electrical activity is disordered lead to a rapid unsynchronized contaction of ventricles (fluttering rather than beating) may have sudden loss of response and abnormal breathing due to cardiac arrest treated w/ defibrillator which provide shock to heart in disordered conductive system cases an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator is used to normalize the heartbeat in aptients w/ life-threatening rhythms |
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ecg changes during myocardial ischemia
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during excercise/high metabolic demand will reveal S-T segment depression
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myocardial ischemia
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insufficient blood supply to parts of cardiac muscles due to :
atherosclerosis of coronary a.s coronary thrombosis problems during exercise or high metabolic demand |
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S-T segment depression
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digitalis, rapid heart rate, electrolyte imbalance, including: hypokalemia, temp change like hypothermia, and other may cause this
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myocardial infarction
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heart attack
ecg waves will spike symptoms: treatment:oxygen, angioplasty |
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antrioventricular block**not sure if one test
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involves the impairment of the conduction between the atria and ventricles of the heart.
First degree AV block - PR interval greater than 0.20sec. Second degree AV block - Type 1 (aka Mobitz 1, Wenckebach): Progressive prolongation of PR interval with dropped beats (the PR interval gets longer and longer; finally one beat drops) . Type 2 (aka Mobitz 2, Hay): PR interval remains unchanged prior to the P wave which suddenly fails to conduct to the ventricles. Third degree AV block - No association between P waves and QRS complexes. |
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ST segment elevation
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can happen in:
1. transmural myocardial infarction 2. vasopastic (Prinzmetal ) angina 3. pericarditis |
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atheroslecrotic plaque
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fibrofatty or atheromatous plaque can occlude coronary v.s
may lead to chest pain (angina pectoris) and limit exercise |
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coronary angiography
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helps visulaize coronary v.s by injecting contrast medium into catheter which is in coronary v.s
it blocks xray so it can be seen now there is ct angiography to visulaize 3d heart and v.s |
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angioplasty
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percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
blood is filled to catheter at side of narrowing attempts to push plaque out to widen lumen restore blood supply done before stent isplaced in coronary a. to prevent: nsaid (prevents thrombus formation in vs) |
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coronary bypass surgery
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restores blood supply of heart distal to obstruction
*creates new path go through great saphenous vein or mammary a. |
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congestive heart failure
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heart can no longer pump enough blood to the rest of the body.
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echocardiography
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Also known as a cardiac ultrasound, it uses standard ultrasound techniques to image two-dimensional slices of the heart. The latest ultrasound systems now employ 3D real-time imaging.
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anteriovenous anastomoses
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blood vessel that connects to artery
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vasa vasorum
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network of small blood vessels that supply large blood vessels
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lobectony
pneumnectomy |
part of lug removed
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lactiferous ducts
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lead from the lobules of the mammary gland to the tip of the nipple. They are also referred to as galactophores, galactophorous ducts, mammary ducts, mamillary ducts and milk ducts. They are structures which carry milk toward the nipple in a lactating female.
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cells
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basic structural and functional units of life
all organisms are cellular in nature 50 to 100 trill cells in body |
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structure of cell
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3 regions:
1.plasma membrane 2. cytoplasm 3. nucleus |
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plasma membrane (plasmalemma)
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outer thin flexible membrane of cell which separates the intracellular from extracellular compartment (fluid)
composed of double layer lipids (ex: phospholipids ,choclesterol and glycolipids) which proteins are embedded |
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phospholipids
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most abundant lipids in the plasma membrane
heads: hydrophilic (attached to water, main constituent of intra and extracellular fluids) and lie along the inner and outer face of membrane tails: hydrophobic (avoid water and line up in center of membrane) |
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integral proteins
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most abundant proteins in the membrane, most extend entirely through the membrane (transmembrane) but some protrude from one side of the membrane. could act as receptors
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peripheral proteins
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mainly on cytoplasmic side
support cytoplasmic side of the membrane by a network of filaments |
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glycocalyx
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sugar covering on cell coat: short chain of carbs projected out from external surface of glycoproteins or glycolipids
functions in cell to cell binding and recognition |
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functions of plasma membrane
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1. external barrier
2. proteins are receptors and cell to cell recognizers 3. transport in and out semipermeable-some substances pass btw intra and extracellular fluids while preventing others |
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passive process
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substances can pass freely through lipid bilayer down concentration gradient
no atp high-->low diffusion: movement of small uncharged molecules like oxygen, co2 and fat soluble molecules across membrane |
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osmosis
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type of passive process
water diffuses down its concentration gradient across membrane |
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active process
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substances move against concentration gradient from a lower to higher concentration
need atp active transport: most larger water-soluble or charged molecule, such as glucose, aa and ions are transported by a pump or carrier and involve integral proteins |
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vesicular or bulk transport
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large particles and macromolecules pass through membrane with this
2 types: exocytosis and endocytosis |
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exocytosis
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membrane-lined cytoplasmic vesicles fuse w/ plasma membrane and release their contents to outside cell
ex:mucus and protein secretions from glands in body proteins extending from vescicle membranes snares, bind w/ plasma proteins, the tsnares (t for target)cause the lipid layers of the vesicle and cell membrane to joint together |
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endocytosis
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brings large molecules into cell through initial infolding part of plasma membrane that encloses them to form cytoplasmic vesicles
3 types: phago,pino and receptor mediated endocytosis |
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clathrin
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protein, found on cytoplasmic side of infolding is responsible for deforming the membrane
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phagocytosis
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parts of plasma membrane form pseudopodes and flow around large molecules such as bacteria or cellular debris and engulf
a membranous vesicle called a phagosome is formed |
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phagosomes
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fuse to lysosomes from enzymatic break down of phagosomal contents
(white blood cells do this) |
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pinocytosis
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fluid phase endocytosis
small infolding of plasma membrane surrounds a small quantity of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules main functions of cells lining small intestine, absorption of nutrients |
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receptor mediated endocytosis
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selective mechanism-specific molecules such as insulin (other hormones) enzymes and low density lipoproteins (ldl, molecules that carry cholesterol in body to the body's cells) are brought into cells by first attaching to a receptor on membrane before being taken into cells in a protein coated vesicle
contents of vesicles are released by binding to lysosomes and receptors are recycled back to plasma membrane viruses and some toxins use same mechanism to enter cells |
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family hypercholesterolemia
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inherited disease in which cells lack receptors that bind to cholesterol binding ldls
-->cholesterol cant enter cells and build in blood causing hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis which lead to stroke or myocardial infarction |
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cytoplasm
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in cellular region btw nucleus and plasma membrane
consists of cytosol, cytoplasmic matrix (viscous fluid containing water) ions enzymes and inclusions containing stored nutrients and pigments and organelles |
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ribosomes
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dark straining granules w/ no membrane
-site of protein production -consist of : protein and ribosomal rna -free ribosomes make protein used in the cytosol -ribosomes attahced on surface of rer make proteins used for cell membrane or exported out of cell |
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translation
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aa on the ribosomes are linked together to form protein
-dictated by dna of nucleus -instructions are carried to ribsomes by messengers called mrna |
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rer
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ribsome studedded system of membrane alled envelopes in cytosole, called cisternae
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ser
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network of membranous system of sacs and tubules in the cytosol
no ribosomes involved in synthesis of lipids and steroids, lipid metabolism and drug detoxification |
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golgi apparatus
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stack of disc shaped envelops or cisternae which are bound by membrane
cisternae have a cis (convex) and trans face sorts the products of rer and packs them in membrane bound vesicles and sends them to proper destination makes secretory grandules and lyososomes |
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mitrochondria
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rod like organelles covered by 2 membranes in the cytoplasm
inner membrane is foled into cristae main energy generator of cell and main site o atp synthesis |
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lysosomes
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spherical, membrane walled sacs containing digestive enzymes called acid hydrolases
site of intracellular digestion and destroy deteriorated organelles and substances brought into cells by vesicles -fuse w/ phagosomes and empty their enzymes into phagosomes breaking down their contents phagocytic cells have lots of lysosomes |
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tay-sachs
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inherited disease infants lack specific enzyes in lysosomes responsible for break down of certain glycolipids
glyolipids accumulate in cell membrane specially on neurons,resulting in mental retardation, blindness, spastic movements and death within 1.5years |
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peroxisomes
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membrane-walled, enzyme-containing sacs
contained oxidase and catalase liver and kidney have many |
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oxidase and catalase
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use oxygen to neutralize aggressively reactive substances calle free radicals by converting them to hydrogen peroxide
catalase converted hydrogen peroxide to oxygen (also break down alcohol, phenol and formaldehyde in body) |
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cytoskeleton
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network of rods running through cytosol to support cell structure and generate movements of cell
3 types: microtubules-phone cord microfilaments-thin and outward intermediate filaments-cord with wires inside |
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microtubules
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cylindrical made of tubulin proteins
radiate out from centrisome region close to nucleus give cell shape and orpganize distribution and transport of various organelles w/in cytoplasm secretory granules, lysosomes etc. attach to icrotubules and puled by motor proteins called: kinesins and dyneins also from centrioles labile |
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microfilaments
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actin filaments
fine filaments of contractile proteins called actin labile actin interacts w/ myosine and generates contractile forces w/ cell involved in muscle contraction and other cellular movement such as amoeboid movement and extension of pseudopods |
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intermediate filaments
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tough insoluble and stable protein fibers which act to resist tension placed in cell
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centrosomes
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sphericle structure in cytoplasm near nucleus
has outer cloud of protein called matrix and inner pair of centrioles matrix protein is involved in elongation of microtubuels and miotic spindle of microtubules radiates from it in dividing cells |
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cytoplasmic inclusions
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impermanent structures in cytoplasm such as lipid droplets and glycogen containing glycosomes
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centrioles
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core of centrisome
paired cylindrical bodies perpendicular to one another and each composed of 9 triplets of microtubules organize a microtubule network during mitosis to form spindle and asters form bases of cilia and flagella |
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tissues
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collection of structurally similar cells w/ related function
4 basic types: 1/. epithelial tissue: for covering 2. connective tissue: for support 3. muscle tissue: for movement 4. nerve tissue: for control |
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epithelial tissue
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sheets of cells that cover body surfaces and cavities
function to protect body (such as skin ) or sensory reception such as olfactory epithelial cells, absorpotion (ie internal covering cells of intestine), ion transport and filtration like cells covering various tubules in kidney glands are covered internally by epitelial cells which function in secretion of their products high cellularity little extraacellular material special cell junction avascular but are innervated ability to regenerate |
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classification of epithelial cells
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1. squamous (flat)
2. cuboidal (cube like) 3. columnar (tall and rod like) also 1. simple -1 layer 2. stratified-1+ layers stratified epithelia are named according to shpae of the apical cells |
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simple squamous epithelium
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discription: single layer of flattened cells w/ disc shaped central nuclei and spares cytoplasm, simplest of the epithelia
location: serous membranes: pericardium, pleura, peritoneum, kidney corpuscles, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart function: allow passage of material of diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not imports, scretes lubricating substances in seorsae |
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glands
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cells specialized to secret a product by exocytosis
exocrine/endocrine uni or multicellular |
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endocrine glands
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ductless glands secrete horomes which enter circulation and reach target tissue to have effects
ex: endo part of pancrease produces insulin and glucagon and |
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exocrine glands
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secrete products onto body surfaces or cavities
ex: goblet cells secret mucus and are unicellular multicellular-classified by structure of ducts as simple, compound and by structure of secretory units at tubular, alveolar or tubuloalveolar |
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epithelial surface
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some apical epithelial cells have microvilli
apical epithelial cells might have cilia |
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features of lateral cell surfaces
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hold epitelial cells together by
1. adhesion proteins link plasma membranes of adjacent cells 2. contours of adjacent cell membranes 3. special cell junctions-tight junctions, adhering junctions and desmosomes |
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tight junctions
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zona occludens
1. found close to apical region of cells 2. close of extra cellular spaces 3. prevent molecules from passing btw cells of epi. tissue 4. some proteins in plasma membrane of adjacent cells even fuse together due to this junction |
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desmosomes
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bind cells together
1. two disc like paques connect across intercellular space 2. plaques of adjoining cells are joined by cadherins-protein 3. proteins interdigitate into extra cell space 4. int. filaments insert into plaques from cytoplasmic side |
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gap junction
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1. passage btw 2 adjacent cells
2. let small molecules move directly btw neighboring cells 3. cells are connected by hollow cylinders of protein |
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basal epithelial surface
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1. lie on basal lamina(protein sheet)
2. act as filter and base on which regenerating epithelial cells can grow 3. basal lamina and retricular fibers from ticker basement membrane |
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connective tissue
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most diverse and abundant
cells are separated by large amount of extracellular matrix originate from mesencyme |
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matrix of connective tissue
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except blood
fibers ground substance and tissue fluid interstitial fluid -watery, occupyings extra cell matrixa dn derives from blood ground substance: viscous and cnsist of sugar and protein molecules, made and secreted by fibroblasts fibers: all produced by fibroblasts |
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4 types of connective tissue
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1. connec. tissue proper
2. cartilage 3. bone tissue 4. blood |
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proper connective tissue
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1 loose
-areolar adipose reticular 2. dens -irreg -reg |
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loose areolar connective tissue
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most widespread, surrounds capillaries and underlies most epithelia
f; 1supports and binds other itssues with its fibers 2(collagen, elastic and reticular) holds tissue fluid in jelly-like matrix 3. fights infects w/ its blood 2derived defense cells (macrophages, neutrophils, plasma cells) mast cells (i inflammation) 1stores nutrients and fat in fat cells l: under epithelia of body, packages organs and surrounds capillaries |
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cells and fiber function in areolar connective tissue
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fibroblasts: spindle or star shape cells produce fibers of connective tissues
collage elastic,reticular fibers defense cells macrophages, plasma, nentophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, mast cells, fat cells |
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scurvy
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vit c deficiency
vit c needed for poper cross linking fo collage fiber molecules deficiency leads to weaking of collage and connec ttissues leading to blood veseel rupture (bleed from gums) poor healing |
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dense connective tissue
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collage fibers which resist pulling forces
irregular: collagen fibers run in various directions, fund in dermis and organ capsules reg: college run in parallel directions separated by fibroblastss, subject to higher tension and found in tendons, ligs, and fascias |
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cartilage
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connective tissue
1hayline 2elastic 3fibrocartilage |
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hyaline cartilage
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supports and reinforces, cushioning, resists compressive stress
l: embryonic skeleton, ends of long bones, costal cartilage of ribs, cartilages of nose trachea and larynx |
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elastic cartilage
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maintains shape of structure while allowing great flexibility
external ear, apiglottis |
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fibrocartilage
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strength and shockabsorber
l: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joints |
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bone
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connective tissue
supports and protects, levers for muscles, stores calcium, blood cell formation in bone marrow |
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blood
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connective tissue
atypical connective tissue develops from mesenchyme cellssurrounded by nonliving matrix |
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membranes
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combine epithelial tissues and underlying connective tissues
1. cutaneous membrane-skin, dry 2. mucous membrane-moist and line the hollow internal organs 3. serous membrane-slippery and line body cavities (pleura, peritoneum and pericardium) |
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muscle tissue
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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nervous tissue
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brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia
neurons-excitable, transmit signals supporting cells-neuroglial cells, don't conduct impulses |
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inflammatory response
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tissue response to injury
non-specific, local, limits damage to injury site |
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immune response
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tissue response to injury
longer to develop and specific, destroy particular microorganism at infection |
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inflammation
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tissue response to injury
acute: heat, redness, selling pain chemicals signal nearby blood vessels to dilate, histamine increases permeability of capillaries |
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edema
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tissue response to injury
accumulation of fluid dilutes toxins secreted by bacteria brings oxygen and nutrients from blood brings antibodies from blood to fight infection |
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tissue repair
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fibrosis-proliferation of fibers: fibrous or scar tissue
tissue repair in skin would involve this and regeneration cardiac m. and brain and spinal cord don't regenerated but epithelia and blood tissue do, smooth and skeleteal m.s have mod to weak regen capacities |
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tissues throughout life
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at end of 2nd moth of development: primary tissues appeared, major organs in place
adult: only few tissues regen, many tissues retain pops of stem cells ageing: epithelia thin, collagen decreases, bones muscles and nervous tissue atropy poor nutrion and poor circulation-poor health of tissues |
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albert szent-gyorgyi
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isolated vit c
reserach on oxidation provided basis for citric acid cycle won noble prize |
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pre-schwann cells
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myelin producing cells, sattelite cells
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glial cells
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diff in cns versus pns
4 cells in cns: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes/oligodendroglial cells(form myelin sheateh in cns)microglial cells and ependymal cells(line central canal of spinal cord or ventricles of brain |
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sensory innervation to face
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triageminal n. (sensitivity can be tessted by pressing nerves 18,22,23, it's a verticle line lateral to midline), maxillary n., mandibular n.
maxillary n-->infraorbital mandibular n-->mental n opthalmic n-->supraorbital |
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trigeminal neuralgia/ tic douloureux
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.unknown etiology associated w/ intractable pain along rigeminal n.
simple trigger such as touch cold or hot can start it therapy: carbamazepine, radio frequency detruction of branches involved alcohol or glycerin injection aroud trigeminal ganglion transection of sensory root vascular decompression of trigeminal ganglion |
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platysma
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only cutaneous mm. in human body (under skin)
brings down corners of mouth, expressing sadness innervation: facial n. injury of nerve leads to paralysis of platysma (skin falls away from neck by folds) careful sutures of skin should be made in surgery of the neck region to avoid wrinkles |
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bronchopulmonary segment
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Bronchopulmonary segments:
10 on each side *A bronchopulmonary segment contains: A segmental bronchus, A branch of pulmonary artery, A branch of bronchial artery, Which run together. |
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facial artery
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from ext. carotid passes it anastomose w/ dorsal nasal a. coming from opthalmic a
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facial v.
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anastomoses via angular v. with dorsal nasal v
anastomoses allows direct connect to cavernous sinus through which infections may get in skull |
