Circulatory And Respiratory Systems

Front 1

Primary/secondary objective of respiratory system

Back 1

Primary objective is delivery of oxygen and carbon dioxide from body and environment

Secondary objective is thermoregulation

Front 2

Respiratory path in body

Back 2

Enters mouth/nose and warmed/filtered by moisture/cilia.

Enters pharynx at back of throat

Larynx which contains vocal cords

Trachea which splits into left and right bronchi

Bronchioles which terminate at alveoli sacs where diffusion across capillary membranes occur

Front 3

Myoglobin Vs Hemoglobin

Back 3

Myoglobin is oxygen storage in muscle, very high affinity

Hemoglobin is oxygen storage in blood, lower affinity allows transport but improves rate of dissociation at cells

Front 4

Effects on Hemoglobin

Bohr shift

2,3-DPG

Back 4

pH and T shift curve to right, CO2 causes pH to reduce.

Bohr shift is CO2 effect on increasing hydrogen ion concentration

2,3DPG is enzyme that reduces hemoglobin binding affinity to improve oxygenation at high altitudes

Front 5

Blood composition

Back 5

Plasma - matrix containing water, proteins, ions, urea, and organic compounds. Albumin protein transports non-polar substances, immunoglobulin (antibodies), and clotting factor.

Serum - plasma without clotting factor

Buffy coat - leukocytes (white blood cells)

Red blood cells - Erythrocytes, no organs or nuclei, disc shaped vesicles

Front 6

Platelets

Back 6

Produced by cytoplasm of megakaryocyte, no nuclei.

Produce prostaglandins and enzymes

Major role in coagulation, swell on contact with damaged epithelium.

Front 7

How blood clot forms

Back 7

Platelets exposed to damaged epithelium swell and activate enzymatic cascade. Fibrinogen polymerizes to form fibrin threads and plug hole.

Front 8

Granulacytes vs agranulacytes

Back 8

Granulacytes live short-term, are non-specific and act immediately. Neutrophil is major.

Agranulacytes last long periods but target specific threats in a slower response, then can stick around to protect against future reoccurances.

Monocytes (into macrophage) And lymphocytes (into B/T-cells) are major

Front 9

Blood path through body

Back 9

Left ventricle -> aortic valve to aorta -> systemic arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins -> vena cava -> right atrium -> pulmonary system -> tricuspid valve into right ventricle -> pulmonary valve into pulmonary artery -> pulmonary arteries/arterioles -> lung capillaries -> venules -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid valve to left ventricle

Front 10

The Cardiac Impulse

Back 10

Sistole pulse (high pressure) followed by distole pulse (low pressure)

Regulated by ANS at the sinoatrerial node, innervated by parasympathetic nervous system vagus nerve. SA node induces atrial pump while atrioventrical node induces ventricle pump through signal down bundle of his through purkinje fibres.

Front 11

Arteries, capillaries, and veins

Back 11

Arteries have low volume and high pressure, sympNS cause narrowing with smaller arteries narrowing more due to more smooth muscle

Capillaries are blood cell wide paths which allow diffusion and thermoregulation through endothelial cells

Veins are low pressure, high volume with valves to restrict backflow. Thinner walls and less elasticity

Front 12

Methods of crossing capillary walls

Back 12

Non-polar cells cross through the cell membrane

Polar cells (water soluble) cross through spaces between cells

Large polar molecules cross through fenestrations and pinocytosis

Front 13

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

Back 13

Receptors in arteries trigger from low blood pressure, increases water retention in kidneys.

Aldosterone and anti-dieretic hormone are involved

Front 14

Lymphatic system

Back 14

Removes fluid from tissue due to capillary flow, removes large proteins and glycerides.

Involved heavily in immune response

Front 15

Immune system

Back 15

Lymphatic system, spleen, bone marrow, thymus

Innate immunity and acquired immunity (B cells and T cells)

Front 16

Innate immunity defenses

Back 16

The skin

Stomach acid and enzymes

Phagocytotic cells (neutrophils and macrophages)

Chemicals in the blood

Inflammation caused by swelling due to prostoglandins, histamines, etc.

Front 17

Immune cells

Back 17

Bone marrow produces erythrocytes and leukocytes.

Phagocytes/Innate response

Leukocytes become monocytes which becomes macrophages implanted into cells to protect area.

Leukocytes become granulocytes like neutrophils that move through blood to attack as first response.

Acquired response/Lymphocytes

B-lymphocyte are antibody mediated immunity meaning they each become an antibody (immunoglobin) which recognize and hind to specific antigen. Plasma-Bcells and memory-Bcells are formed during primary response which reduces reaction time from 20 to 5 days.

T-lymphocytes are primarily focused on cells already infected, targets and destroys the cells as well as assist T-lymphocytes and remembers pathogen.

MAST CELLS - releases histamine when antibody binds to mast cell and antigen

Front 18

Antigen recognition

MHC and 1/2 signal activation

Back 18

All nuclei containing cells possess the major histocompatability complex (MHC)

MHC Class 1 - intracellular pathogen threat signals, all cells present as capable of infection.

MHC Class 2 - Extracellular pathogens threat signals, phagocytic cells only present as they absorb extracellular pathogens (professional antigen presenting cells APC's)

T cell signalling - signal 1 from APC MHC class 2 expression. Signal 2 from innate response

B-cell signalling - signal 1 from antibody linkage. Signal 2 from helper T-cells

Front 19

Immune System Regulation

Back 19

Too much regulation = auto-immune disease

Not enough regulation = succumb to foreign attackers

Clonal selection: Positive/negative selection

Positive -> must react to MHC class 1 & 2 signals properly

Negative -> must not react to self-antigens properly

Front 20

Immune response step-by-step

Back 20

Antigen enters circulatory pathway

Phagocytic (APC) cells such as macrophages and neutrophil engulf antigen in blood/tissue

Moving into lymph region:

Antigens trigger B-cells to produce plasma B-cells to produce antibodies, and memory B-cells for future attack.

Engulfed antigens trigger MHC class 2 response creating helper T-cells (which stimulates B/T-cells)

Infected cells flag antigen causing MHC class 1 response by T-cells to attack, which creates memory T cells and killer T cells.

Engulfed cells are destroyed and processed. Flagging cells are destroyed and processed. Memory cells remain for future response.

Front 21

Blood type

Back 21

Type signified present antigens. Antibodies only present for unrepresentative antigen. Therefore O had all antibodies, and no antigens.