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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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selection process
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We are constantly bombarded by stimuli
We pay attention to only a few of those stimuli Focusing attention depends upon Ability Interest Nature of stimuli (large, intense, unusual) We often talk to ourselves to focus |
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Organization process
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Constructivism- theory that we apply cognitive structures to perceptions in organizing them
Cognitive structures are called schemata (Greek, plural of schema, “figure” or “form”) Four Types of Schemata |
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four types of schemata
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Prototypes
Personal Constructs Stereotypes Scripts |
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Prototypes
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Clearest example of a category
E.g., the ideal student We classify others by comparison with prototype Exemplar may be good, bad, or neutral E.g., a boring person, a large truck, an experimental vehicle |
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Personal Constructs
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Bipolar dimensions (on a continuum)
E.g., intelligent-unintelligent, dangerous-safe, fair-unfair, extrovert-introvert We organize perceptions by placing observations on the continuum If we lack a construct or habitually use only certain constructs, we may miss qualities of what we perceive |
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Stereotypes
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Predictive generalizations based on grouping
May be good or bad E.g., recognizing a dangerous situation when driving Or prejudging a person based on grouping Stereotype may be wrong about group Variations within group may make stereotype misleading |
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Scripts
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We interpret life dramatically
We expect events to go in a certain way A script is a mental expectation of how things should go We have routine scripts for regular events E.g., answering the telephone, chatting at lunch, getting dressed |
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Interpretation
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Our explanation for what we observe
Attributions are explanations—what we attribute to our observations Self-serving bias affects our interpretation |
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Attributions of Causality
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Internal-External Locus
Stability of Factors Dimension of Control |
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Dimensions of Attributions
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Self-Serving Bias
Attribute Success to Stable, Internal,and Controllable Factors and doing badly to uncontrollable factors |
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Influences of perception
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Physiological Factors
Expectations What we anticipate affects what we perceive Subliminal Priming Positive Visualization |
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more influences of perception
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Cognitive Abilities
Cognitive Complexity (complexity of constructs we use for organizing) Person-Centeredness Ability to take another’s perspective Requires cognitive complexity Not quite the same as empathy Empathy |
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Influences on Perception more
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Social Roles
Membership in Cultures Membership in Social Communities |
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Guidelines for Improving Skills in Perceiving
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Avoid Mind Reading
Check Perceptions with others.Distinguish Facts from Inferences and Judgments- dig deeper; ask questions of self and of others. Monitor Self-Serving Bias |
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Verbal Communication
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Using words to communicate, whether written or spoken
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Features of Verbal Language
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Arbitrary
Ambiguous Abstract |
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Verbal Language is Arbitrary
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The word tree is not connected to the object nor does it resemble it.
Meaning of words depends on usage. Usage often changes. Some words are less arbitrary, e.g., buzz But words are not arbitrary to individuals |
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Verbal Language is Ambiguous
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Meaning depends on usage, and usage varies
Words must be vague to cover different situations Different cultures (subcultures, etc.) have different ranges of meaning for words |
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Verbal Language is Abstract
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Words are not the objects they stand for.
Words generally stand for a category of objects. Categories can be more or less general. Unnecessary abstraction can lead to unnecessary vagueness Abstraction can include judgment and stereotyping |
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Principles of Communication
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Interpretation creates meaning
Communication is rule-governed Punctuation affects meaning |
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Brute facts
Institutional facts |
brute- observed. there.
institutional- result of the observed |
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Communication Guided by Rules
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Communication rules
Regulative rules Constitutive rules |
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“Punctuation” Affects Meaning
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“Punctuation” is our perception of when interaction begins and when it ends
“Punctuation” disagreements- cause and effect Demand/Withdraw Pattern |
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Symbolic Activities
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Language defines phenomena
Language evaluates phenomena Loaded language ReappropriationLanguage organizes experiences Language allows hypothetical thought Language allows self-reflection |
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Language defines relationships and interaction
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Responsiveness
Liking Power |
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Guidelines for Effective Verbal Communication
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Engage in person-centered communication
Monitor levels of abstraction Qualify language Own your feelings and thoughts |
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Nonverbal Communication
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Using signs that are not words
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Nonverbal Communication is Ambiguous
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Reflects and Perpetuates Organizational Identities
Meanings Vary over Time Learned and Guided by Rules |
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Nonverbal Behaviors Interact with Verbal Communication
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May Repeat Verbal Message
May Highlight Verbal Communication May Complement or Add to Words May Contradict Verbal Messages |
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Nonverbal Communication Can Regulate Interaction
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Can Organize Interactions
Signal When to Speak or Stay Silent Invite Persons to Speak by Looking Directly at Them |
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Nonverbal Communication Can Establish Relationship-Level Meanings
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Responsiveness
Liking Power |
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Nonverbal Communication Reflects Cultural Values
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Rules of Specific Cultures
Not Instinctual, but Learned Signal Territory and Space Signal Orientations to Time Norms for Touch |
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Kinesics- Facial expressions
(nonverbal behaviors) |
Communicates Mood and Openness to Interaction
Expresses How We Feel about Others Face and Eyes Communicate Complex Messages |
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Kinesics- Eye behavior
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Attitude
Lover’s gaze Hard, cold stare Interest Pupil dilation Eye contact Dominance/submission Firm stare, little blinking, looking down = dominance Avoiding eye contact, eyes cast down, looking up = submission |
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Kinesics- Body movement
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Emblems—substitute
Illustrators—complement and accent Regulators—control turn-taking Affect displays—show emotions Body manipulators—adapted behavior, e.g., scratching your head during a test Movement and posture, openness versus defensiveness |
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Haptics- Communicating through touch (nonverbal)
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First of Five Senses to Develop
Essential to Healthy Life May Communicate Affect, Power, and Status |
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Physical Appearance
(nonverbal) |
Notice Obvious Physical Qualities First
Cultures and Ideals for Physical Form Includes Physiological Characteristics and How We Manage Our Appearance |
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Artifacts- Communicating with objects
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Use to Announce Identities
Ethnic and Cultural Identities Professional Identities |
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Use to Personalize our Environments
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Define Territories
Claim Private Spaces |
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Proxemics and Personal Space
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Social Distance 4-12 Feet
Intimate Distance 18 In. or Less Varies from Culture to CultureAnnounces Status More Space, More Power Women and Minorities, Less Space Arrangement of Space Effects Interaction |
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Environmental Factors
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Comfort and Arrangement of Furniture
Brightness/Dimness of Lighting Choice of Colors Feng Shui |
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Chronemics- Communicating with time
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We Use Time to Negotiate and Convey Status
Expresses Cultural Attitude Towards Time Length of Time Spent with Other Depends on Liking Involves Expectation of Time |
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Paralanguage
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Volume, Rhythm, Pitch, Inflection
Vocal Cues Communicate Feelings to Others Voice Affects How Others See Us Varies by Culture and Gender |
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silence as a nonverbal behavior
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Lack of Communicated Sound
Can Communicate Powerful Messages Can Communicate Awkwardness Silence can Shun Varies by Culture |
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Smell and Taste
nonverbal communication |
Deodorants, perfumes, etc.
Some smells and tastes may bring up memories |
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Guidelines for Effective Nonverbal Communication
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Monitor Your Nonverbal Communication
Interpret Others’ Nonverbal Communication Tentatively Personal Qualifications Contextual Qualifications |
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Hearing and Listening
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Hearing is a Physiological Activity
Listening is More Complex Process |
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The Listening Process- being mindful
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Focuses on What is Happening in the Moment
Is an Ethical Commitment to Attend Fully Enhances Communication |
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The Listening Process- physically Receiving Communication
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Hearing Sounds
Interpreting Nonverbal Cues Reading Lips Reading ASL Being Influenced Physiologically |
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listening process-Selecting and Organizing Communication
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Selection Depends on…
Physiological Influences Expectations Cognitive Structures Social Roles |
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the listening process-Selecting and Organizing Communication
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Organization Depends on…
Cognitive Schemata Prototypes Stereotypes Scripts |
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listening process-Interpreting Communication
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Interpretation Depends on…
Understanding Others on Their Own Terms Recognizing Others’ Viewpoints |
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listening process -Responding
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Skillful Listeners Give Signs They are Involved
Skillful Listeners Respond Nonverbally |
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the listening process- remembering
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We Remember Less than Half Immediately After We Hear it
We Forget 2/3 After 8 Hours We Need to Focus on Most Important 1/3 |
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obstacles for effective listening- situational obstacles
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Message Overload
Message Complexity Environmental Distractions |
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internal obstacles (for affective listening)
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Preoccupation
Prejudgments Lack of Effort Not Recognizing Diverse Listening Styles |
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forms of ineffective listening
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Pseudolistening
Monopolizing Selective Listening Defensive Listening Ambushing Literal Listening |
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Develop Skills for Informational and Critical Listening
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Be Mindful
Control Obstacles Ask Questions Use Aids to Recall Organize InformationBe Mindful Control Obstacles Ask Questions Use Aids to Recall Organize Information |
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Develop Skills for Relationship Listening
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Be Mindful
Suspend Judgment Strive to Understand Other’s Minimal Encouragers Paraphrasing Ask Questions Express Support |
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Develop Skills for Other Listening Goals
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Listening for Pleasure
Listening to descriminate |
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Informational interview
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Career planning
Journalism General research |
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other types of interviews
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Persuasive interview
Problem-solving interview Employment interview Complaint interview Appraisal interview Stress interview Exit interview |
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Basic Interview Structure
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Opening stage
Create desired climate Define purpose Substantive stage Body of interview Requires planning of topics Funnel sequence: general to specific Closing stage Summarize Explain what happens next Create good will |
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Basic Interview Approaches- directive
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Questions planned in detail
Little spontaneity Stresses interviewee |
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Basic Interview Approaches--Non-directive
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Broad plan of key questions
Spontaneous follow-ups and probes Less stress on interviewee |
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basic interview approaches-Combination
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Non-directiveDirectiveNon-directive
Funnel—Reverse funnel |
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Types of Interview Questions
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Open—broad, general; more freedom in answering
Closed—specific; brief and restricted responses Mirror—reflect last answer but implies elaboration Probing—follow up broad answers Hypothetical—imaginary scenario Leading—imply answer Summary—often statement but invites response to ensure everything’s been covered |
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Interview Preparation
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Decide on who your interview subject will be
Gather background information on your interview subject and his/her career field Check print and non print media for recent news stories related to your contact and/or his/her career area |
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Interview Question Areas
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Background information on subject-personal and professional
Information on contact’s job or career path Any seminal events in subject’s life or career Contact’s evaluation of his/her job or career path Subject’s recommendations for someone pursuing a similar communication-related career path or job |
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Conducting the Interview
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Dress appropriately
Do not exceed your requested time, but be prepared to stay longer Be on time Be courteous Take the initiative Listen actively |
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Interview Follow-Up
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Record information you gathered
Record information on your contact Reflect on your experience Follow up with a thank-you note to your subject Write your report—focus on communicative aspects of interview |
