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157 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Why are prokaryotes the most abundant organism on Earth?
Because of their ability to adapt to a broad range of habitats.

p. 556
TRUE OR FALSE: Most prokaryotes are multicellular.
FALSE. Most prokaryotes are unicerllular.

p.556
TRUE OR FALSE: Prokaryotes can live in colonies.
TRUE. Some species aggregate temporarily or permanently in colonies.

p. 556
What are the three most common shapes of prokaryotic cells?
Spherical (cocci), Rod-shaped (bacilli), and Spiral.

p. 557
What shape is cocci?
Spherical

p. 557
What shape is bacilli?
Rod-shaped

p. 557
TRUE OR FALSE: Although prokaryotes are unicellular and small, prokaryotes are well organized, achieving all of an organism's life functions within a single cell.
TRUE.

p. 557
What are functions of the cell wall for prokaryotic cells?
maintains cell shape, provides physical protection, and prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment.

p. 557
What makes up eukaryotic cell walls?
cellulose or chitin.

p. 557
What do most bacterial cell walls contain?
peptidoglycan.

p. 557
What is a peptidoglycan?
A network of modified-sugar polymers cross-linked by short polypeptides.

p. 557
What does a peptidoglycan help do?
encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface.

p. 557
What are the two groups that can be classified by Gram stains?
Gram-positive and Gram-negative.

p. 557
What causes Gram-positive bacteria to be violet?
The bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglygan that traps the crystal violet in the cytoplasm.

p. 557
What caues Gram-Negative stains to be Pink?
Bacteria have less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded to lipids) . The crystal violet is easily rinsed from the cytoplasm, and the cell appears pink or red.

p. 557
The ____ portion of the lipopolysaccharides in the walls of many gram-negative bacteria are toxic, causing fever or shock.
Lipid

p. 558
TRUE OR FALSE: The outer layer of a Gram-negative bacteria does not aid it in protection against the body's defense.
FALSE. The outer membrane of a gram-negative bacterium helps protect it from the body's defenses.

p. 558
Which is more resistant to antibiotics, Gram-positive or Gram-negative?
Gram-negative because the outer membrane impedes entry of the antibiotics or drugs.

p. 558
TRUE OR FALSE: Certain gram-positive species have virulent strains that are resistant to one or more antibiotics.
TRUE.

p. 558
How does penicillin work?
Penicillin derives from their inhibition of the peptidoglycan cross-linking. The resulting cell wall may not be functional, particularly in gram-positive bacteria.
TRUE OR FALSE: The cell wall of many prokaryotes is covered by a capsule.
TRUE.

p. 558
What is a capsule?
A stiky layer of polysaccharide or protein that covers the cell wall of many prokaryotes.

p. 558
What does a capsule do?
Enables prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or to other individuals in a colony. Some protect against dehydration, and some shield pathogenic prokaryotes from attacks by their host's immune system.

p. 558
What are fimbriae?
A hair-like protein appendage that some prokaryotes have which helps them stick to their substrate or to one another.

p. 558
What are attachment pili?
fimbriae

p. 558
How can you tell the difference between fimbriae and sex pili?
Fimbriae are usually shorter and more numerous than sex pili.

p. 558
What are sex pili?
Appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other.

p. 558
Where are flagella located on prokaryotic cells?
They may be scattered over the entire surface of the cell or concentrated at one or both ends.

p. 558
What are taxis?
A movement toward or away from a stimulus.

p. 559
Are prokaryotes that exhibit taxis in a homogenous or heterogenous environment?
heterogenous environment. p. 559
TRUE OR FALSE: The genome of prokaryotes is structurally different from a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerable less DNA.
TRUE. The genome consists of a circular chromosome whose structure includes fewer proteins than found in the linear chromosomes of eukaryotes.

p. 559
TRUE OR FALSE: Prokaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus.
FALSE. Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.

p. 559
Where are the chromosomes of prokaryotes found?
In the Nucleoid.

p. 559
What is a nucleoid?
A region of cytoplasm that appears lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm in electron micrographs.

p. 559
What are plasmids?
Rings of separately replicating DNA; most carrying only a few genes.

p. 559
TRUE OR FALSE: Prokaryotic ribosomes are actually larger than eukaryotic ribosomes.
FALSE. Prokaryotic ribosomes are slightly smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes and differ in their protein and RNA content.

p. 559
How do prokaryotes generally reproduce?
binary fission: A single prokaryotic cell divivdes into 2 cells, which divide into 4 etc.
What are the 3 key features to reproduction in prokaryotes?
They are small, they reproduce by binary fission, and they have short generation times.

p. 560
What are endospores?
Resistant cells. When an essential nutrient is lacking, the original cell produces a copy of its chromosome and surrounds it with a tough wall, forming the endospore. Water is removed from the endospore, and its metabolism halts.

p. 560
What are the three factors that give rise to high levels of genetic diversity in prokaryotes?
rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination.

p. 561
What three things cause offspring prokaryotic cells ti differ genetically?
insertion, deletions, and base-pair substitutions.

p. 561
TRUE OR FALSE: New mutations are individually common.
FALSE. New mutations are individually rare and can greatly increase genetic diversity in species like E. coli that have short generation times and large population sizes.

p. 561
How do new mutations in prokaryotic cells lead to rapid evolution?
Individuals that are genetically better equipped for their local environment tend to survive and reproduce more prolifically than less fit individuals.

p. 561
What three things can bring together prokaryotic DNA from different individuals?
transformation, transduction, and conjugation.

p. 561
What is transformation?
When the genotype and possibly phenotype of a prokaryotic cell are altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings.

p. 561
When is a cell considered a recombinant?
When its chromosome contains DNA derived from two different cells.

p. 561
How do bacteria recognize DNA from closely related species?
Many bacteria have cell-surface proteins that recognize DNA from closely related species and transport it into the cell.

Once inside the cell, the foreign DNA can be incorporated into the genome by homologous DNA exchange.

p. 561
What is transduction?
When bacteriophages carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another;

p. 561
Is transduction a horizontal or vertical gene transfer?
horizontal gene transfer.

p. 561
What is conjugation?
When genetic material is transferred between two bacterial cells (of the same or different species) that are temporarily joined.

p. 562
TRUE OR FALSE: During conjugation, the genetic material is only transferred between the same species.
FALSE. it may be the same or different species.

p. 562
TRUE OR FALSE: DNA transfer can occur both ways.
FALSE. The DNA transfer is one-way: One cell donates the DNA, and the other receives it.

p. 562
The donor uses ____ _____ to attach to the recipient during conjugation.
sex pili

p. 562
What determines the ability to form sex pili and donate DNA during conjugation?
The presence of an F factor.

p. 562
What is an F factor?
A piece of DNA that can exist as a plasmid or as a segment or DNA within a bacterial chromosome which determines the ability to form sex pili.

p. 562
What is an F plasmid?
The F factor in its plasmid form.
What are F+ cells?
Cells that contain the F plasmid.

p.562
Are F+ cells DNA donors or recipients?
DNA donors.

p. 562
What are F- cells?
Cells that lack the F factor.

p.562
Are F- cells DNA donors or recipients?
DNA recipients.
TRUE OR FALSE: The F+ condition is transferable.
TRUE. F+ cells convert F- cells to F+ if a copy of the entire F+ plasmid is transferred.

p. 562
What is an Hfr cell?
A cell with the F factor bult into its chromosome.

Hfr= High frequency of recombination.

p. 562
TRUE OR FALSE: Mutations in genes can alter the intracellular target protein for an antibiotic molecule, which reduces its inhibitory effect.
TRUE.

R plasmids and Antibiotic resistance.

p. 563
What are "resistance genes"?
genes in bacteria which code for enzymes that specifically destroy or otherwise hinder the effectiveness of certain antibiotics.

They are carried by R plasmids.

p. 563
What are R plasmids?
Plasmids that carry resistance genes that are "resistant" to antibiotics like tetracycling or ampicillin.

p. 563
How can R plasmids transfer the R plasmid from one cell to another?
Many R plasmids have genes that encode sex pili and enable plasmid transfer from one bacterial cell to another by conjugation.

p. 564
TRUE OR FALSE: Prokaryotes can be categorized by their nutrition.
TRUE. ex: How they obtain energy and the carbon used in building the organic molecules that make up cells.

p. 564
TRUE OR FALSE: Nutritional diversity is greater among eukaryotes than prokaryotes.
FALSE. Nutritional diversity is greater among Prokaryotes than Eukaryotes.

p. 564
What are phototrophs?
Organisms that obtain energy from light.
What are chemotrophs?
Organisms that obtain energy from chemicals.
What are autotrophs?
Organisms that need only an inorganic compound such as CO2 as a carbon source.

p. 564
What are heterotrophs?
Organisms that require at least one organis nutrient -- such as glucose -- to make other organic compounds.

p. 564
What are photoautotrophs?
Photosynthetic organisms that capture light energy and use it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO2 or other inorganic carbon compounds, such as bicarbonate (HCO3-).

p. 564
What are chemoautotrophs?
Organisms that need only an inorganic compound such as CO2 as a carbon source.

p.564
How do chemoautotrophs use inorganic substance?
they oxidize them.

p. 564
What are photoheterotrophs?
organisms that harness energy from light but must obtain carbon in organic form.

p. 564
What are chemoheterotrophs?
Organisms that must consume organic molecules to obtain both energy and carbon.

p. 564
Which is most common among prokaryotes, photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, or chemoheterotrophs?
chemoheterotrophs.

p. 564
TRUE OR FALSE: Oxygen has an affect on prokaryotic metabolism.
TRUE. Obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, and facultative anaerobes.

p. 564
Are Fungi, animals, most protists, and some parasitic plants photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, or chemoheterotrophs?
chemoheterotrophs.

p. 564
What are obligate aerobes?
They use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it.

p. 564
What are obligate anaerobes?
Organisms that are poisoned by O2.

Some obligate anaerobes live exclusively by fermentation; others extract chemical energy by anaerobic respiration.

p. 564
What is anaerobic respiration?
Substances other than O2, such as nitrate ions (NO3-) or sulfate ions (SO42-) accept electrons at the "downhill" end of electron transport chains.

p. 564
What is facultative anaerobes?
Use O2 if it is present but can also carry out anaerobic respiration for fermentation in an anaerobic environment.

p. 564
TRUE OR FALSE: Sulfur is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms.
FALSE. Nitrogen is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all organisms.

p. 565
What is nitrogen fixation?
When prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in a wide variety of forms. They can convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3).

p. 565
What is "Metabolic cooperation"?
When cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells.

this cooperation takes place between specialized cells of a colony.

p. 565
What are heterocytes?
Specialized cells that carry out only nitrogen fixation

p.565.
How do heterocytes transport fixed nitrogen and nutrients to neighboring cells?
Intercellular connections.

p. 565
What are biofilms?
Suface-coating colonies.

EX: Tooth decay.

p. 565
TRUE OR FALSE: Genetic diversity of prokaryotes is immense.
TRUE. p. 566

Over hundreds of millions of years, prokaryotes have acquired genes from even distantly related species, and they continue to do so today. As a result, significant portions of the genomes of many prokaryotes are actually mosaics of genes imported form other species.
What is the main characteristic of Archaea?
Prokaryotes that live in environments so extreme that few other organisms can survive there.

p. 566
What are extremophiles?
"lovers of extreme conditions". Extreme halophiles and Extreme thermophiles.

p. 566
What are extreme halophiles?
Live in highly saline environments.

p. 566
What are extreme thermophiles?
Thrive in very hot environments.

p. 566
What are methanogens?
They use CO2 to oxidize H2, releasing methane as a waste product.

p. 566
TRUE OR FALSE: Every major mode of nutrition and metabolism is represented among bacteria.
TRUE. Even a small taxonomic group of bacteria may contain species exhibiting many different nutritional modes.

p. 570
What are the five subgroups of Proteobacteria?
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon.

p. 568
What is a key characteristic of Alpha Proteobacteria?
They are closely associated with eukaryotic hosts.

p. 568
What is a key characteristic of Beta Proteobacteria?
Soil bacteria that play an important role in nitrogen recycling by oxidizing ammonium (NH4+)

p. 568
Are proteobacteria gram positive or negative?
Gram-negative.

p. 568
What is a key characteristic of Gamma Proteobacteria?
Sulfur bacteria that obtain energy by oxidizing H2S producing sulfer as a waste product. Some are pathogens.

p. 568
What is a key characteristic of Delta Proteobacteria?
Slime-secreting myxobacteria. When the soil dries out of food is scarce, the cells congregate into a fruiting body that releases resistant "myxospores"

p. 568
What is a key characteristic of Epsilon Proteobacteria?
Pathogenic to humans or other animals.
What is chlamydias?
parasites (bacteria) that can survive only within animal cells, depending on their host for resources as basic as ATP.
Are Chlamydias Gram positive or negative?
Gram- Negative. They lack peptidoglycan.

p. 569
What are Spirochetes?
Helical heterotroph bacteria that spiral through their environment by means of rotating, internal, flagellum-like filaments.

p. 569
What are Cyanobacteria?
Photoautotrophs with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis. Have specialized cells for nitrogen fixation.

p. 569
What is nitrogen fixation?
The process that incorporates atmospheric N2 into inorganic compounds that can be used in the synthesis of amino acids and other organic molecules.

p. 569
What are mycoplasmas?
The only bacteria known to lack cell walls. Also the tiniest of all known cells.
Which is more diverse: Proteobacteria or gram-positive bacteria?
Gram-positive bacteria
Which functions as decomposers: photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, or chemoheterotrophs?
chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes

p. 570
What do decomposers do?
they break down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products, thereby unlocking supplies of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements.

p.570
TRUE OR FALSE: Prokaryotes are capable of converting inorganic compounds to forms that can be taken up by other organisms.
TRUE.
Prokaryotes can increase the availability of nutrients that plants require for growth, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

Prokaryotes can also decrease the availability of key plant nutrients;

p. 570
What does it mean when we say that prokaryotes "immobilize" nutrients?
They use nutrients to synthesize molecules that remain within their cells.

p. 570
What is symbiosis?
An ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact with one another.

Prokaryotes are small, and they often form symbiotic associations with much larger organisms.

p. 570
What is a host?
A larger organism in a symbiotic relationship.

p. 570
What is a symbiont?
A smaller organism in a symbiotic relationship.

p. 570
What is mutualism?
An ecological interaction between two species in which both benefit.

p. 570
What is commensalism?
An ecological relationship in which one species benefits while the other is not harmed or helped in any significant way.
What is parasitism?
An ecological relationship in which a parasite eats the cell contents, tissues or body fluids of its host. As a group, parasites harm but usually do not kill their host, at least not immediately.

p. 571
What are pathogens?
Parasites that cause disease.

p. 571
Are most pathogens prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
prokaryotic.

p. 571
TRUE OR FALSE: All the pathogenic prokaryotes known to date are fungi.
FALSE. ALL the pathogenetic prokaryotes known to date are bacteria.

p. 571
What are exotoxins?
Pathogenic prokaryotes usually cause illness by producing poisons, which are classified as exotoxins or endotoxins. They are proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms.

p. 571
What are endotoxins?
Lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of fram- negative bacteria.

p. 571
What is the difference between extotoxins and endotoxins?
Endotoxins are released only when the bacteria die and their cell walls break down.

p. 572
TRUE OR FALSE: Horizontal gene transfer can also spread genes associated with virulence, turning normally harmless bacteria into lethal pathogens.
TRUE. p. 572
What is bioremediation?
The use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air, or water.

p. 572
CONCEPT CHECK 27.1
Identify and explain at least two adaptations that enable prokaryotes to survive in environments too harsh for other organisms.
Adaptations include the capsule (shields prokaryotes from host's immune system) and endospores (enable cells to survive harsh conditions and to revive whent he environment becomes favorable.)
CONCEPT CHECK 27.1
Contrast the cellular and genomic organization of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells generally lack the internal compartmentalization of eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic genomes have much less DNA than eukaryotic genomes, and most of this DNA is contained in a single ring-shaped chromosome located in the nucleoid rather than within a true membrane- bounded nucleus. In addition, many prokaryotes also have plasmids, small ring-shaped DNA molecules containing a few genes.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.2
What features of prokaryotes make it likely that considerable genetic variation will be added to their populations in each generation?
Prokaryotes have extremely large population sizes, in part because they have short generation times. The large number of individuals in prokaryotic populations makes it likely that in each generation there will be thousands of individuals that have new mutations at any particular gene, thereby adding considerable genetic diversity to the population.
CONCEPT 27.2
Distinguish between the three mechanisms of transferring DNA from one bacterial cell to another.
In transformation, naked, foreign DNA from the environment is taken up by a bacterial cell. In transduction, phages carry bacterial genes from one bacterial cell to another. In conjugation, a bacterial cell directly transfers plasmid or chromosomal DNA to another cell via a mating bridge that temporarily connects the two cells.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.3
Distinguish between the four major modes of nutrition, noting which are unique to prokaryotes.
A phototroph derives its energy from light, while a chemotroph gets its energy from chemical sources. An autotroph derives its carbon from inorganic sources (often CO2), while a heterotroph gets its carbon from organic sources. Thus, there are four nutritional modes, photoautotrophic, photoheterotrophic (unique to prokaryotes), chemoautotrophic (unique to prokaryotes), and chemoheterotrophic.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.3
A bacterium requires only the amino acid methionine as an organic nutrient and lives in lightless caves. What mode of nutrition does it employ? Explain.
Chemoheterotrophy; the bacterium must rely on chemical sources of energy, since it is not exposed to light, and it must be a heterotroph if it requires an organic source of carbon rather than CO2 (or another organic source like bicarbonate.)
CONCEPT CHECK 27.4
Explain how molecular systematics has contributed to our understanding of prokaryotic phylogeny.
Before molecular systematics, taxonomists classified prokaryotes according to phenotypic character that did not clarify evolutionary relationships. Molecular comparisons -- of DNA in particular -- indicate key divergences in prokaryotic lineages.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.4
How has genetic prospecting contributed to out understanding of prokaryotic diversity and phylogeny?
By not requiring that organisms be cultured in the laboratory, genetic prospecting has revealed an immense diversity of previously unknown prokaryotic species. Over time, the ongoing discovery of new species by genetic prospecting is likely to alter our understanding of prokaryotic phylogeny greatly.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.5
Explain how individual prokaryotes, though small, can be considered giants in their collective impact on Earth and its life.
Although prokaryotes are small, their large numbers and metabolic abilities enable them to play key roles in ecosystems by decomposing wastes, recyling chemicals, and affecting the concentrations of nutrients available to other organisms.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.5
Explain how the relationship between humans and B.thetaiotaomicron is an example on mutualism.
Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, which lives inside the human intestines, benefits by obtaining nutrients from the digestive system and by receiving protection from competing bacteria from host-produced antimicrobial compounds to which it is not sensitive. The human host benefits because the bacterium manufactures carbohydrates, vitamins, and other nutrients.
CONCEPT CHECK 27.6
Identify at least two ways that prokaryotes have affected you positively today.
Eating fermented foods such as yogurt, sourdough bread, or cheese; receiving clean water form sewage treatment; taking medicines produced by bacteria
CONCEPT CHECK 27.6
A pathogenic bacterium's toxin causes symptoms that increase the bacterium's chance of spreading from host to host. Does this information indicate whether the poison is an exotoxin or endotoxin? Explain.
No. If the poison is secreted as an exotoxin, live bacteria could be transmitted to another person. But the same is true if the poison is an endotoxin-- only in this case, the live bacteria that are transmitted may be descendants of the (now-dead) bacteria that produced the poision.
SEL-QUIZ
1. Genetic variation in bacterial populations cannot result from:
a. transduction
b. transformation.
c. conjugation
d. mutation.
e. meiosis.
e
SELF-QUIZ
2. Photoautotrophs use
a. light as energy source and CO2 as carbon source
b. light as energy source and methane as a carbon source.
c. N2 as an energy source and CO2 as a carbon source.
d. CO2 as both an energy source and a carbon source.
e. H2S as an energy source and CO2 as a carbon source.
a
SELF-QUIZ
3. Which of the following statements is NOT true?
a. Archaea and bacteria have different membrane lipids.
b. Both archaea and bacteria generally lack membrane-enclosed organelles.
c. The cell walls of archaea lack peptidoglygan.
d. Only bacteria have histones associated with DNA.
e. Only some archaea use CO2 to oxidize H2, releasing methane.
d
SELF QUIZ
4. Which of the following features of prokaryotic biology involves metabolic cooperation among cells?
a. binary fission
b. endospore formation
c. endotoxin release.
d. biofilms
e. photoautotrophy
d
SELF QUIZ
5. Which prokaryotic group is mismatched with its members?
a. proteobacteria -diverse gram-negative bacteria
b. gram-positive bacteria - symbionts in legume root nodules
c. spirochetes - helical heterotrophs
d. chlamydias - intracellular parasites
e. cyanobacteria -- solitary and colonial photoautotrophs.
b
SELF QUIZ
6. Plantlike photosynthesis that releases O2 occurs in
a. cyanobacteria
b. chlamydias
c. archaea
d. actinomycetes
e. chemoautotrophic bacteria.
a
What are the three analytic tools used to classify bacteria?
1) DNA sequencing (most direct strategy)
2) DNA hybridization (quicker than sequencing most of the time)
3) Phenotypic analysis (easy to do, most common in medical labs.)

lecture 2
What are the four ways to analyze molecular systematics of bacteria?
1) PCR -polymerase chain reaction
2) Genomics (sequencing and analyzing a genome)
3) Metagenomics (sequencing and analyzing all the DNA in an environment.)
4) Sequence comparison.
What is the difference between taxonomy and phylogeny?
Taxonomy assigns places to groups, phylogeny assigns descent. Taxonomy doesn't mention descent, phylogeny same common ancestors, Linnean created without evolution, phylogeny shows that the closer the group the more recent the ancestor, taxonomy drives evolutionary thinking, phylogeny created independently.

lecture 2
What are bacteria and archaea collectively called?
prokaryotes.
TRUE OR FALSE: Bacteria and Archae are largely responsible for the chemical cycles that permit all other life on earth.
TRUE. Examples: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Sulfur cycles.

lecture 2
What is turgor pressure-osmosis?
Inside the cell there is high osmolarity. Water comes into the cell, swells against the membrane like a balloon creating turgor pressure. The peptidoglycan layer is strong and keeps the cell from bursting.

lecture 2
What is the advantage of pathogens with a capsule?
they protect the pathogens against immune response.
What is a capsule made of?
polysaccharide. It is distinct from the polyglycan layer.
What are the 5 key characteristics for frimbriae?
1) It is not a pillus.
2) Thin-hairlike
3) Attaches to abiotic surface
4) Verelance factor
5) Used for attachment to surfaces in pathogenesis in gut and urinary tract.
What are the 4 key characteristics of sex-pilus conjugation?
1) Bacteria are passing one DNA from one to another
2) Attachment factor
3) Fertility facor
4) Not for sexual reproduction