Child Development Midterm 3

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Phonology

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(first component of language) the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech sounds

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Semantics

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(second component of language) involves vocabulary - the way underlying concepts are expressed in words and word combinations

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Grammar

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(third component of language) consists of two main parts : syntax and morphology

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Syntax

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The rules by which words are arranged into sentences

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Morphology

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The use of grammatical markers indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice and other meanings

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Pragmatics

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rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication

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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

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Chomsky nativist perspective - a system that permits them, once they have acquired sufficient vocabulary, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear

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Universal grammar

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a built-in storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages

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Broca's area

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located in the left frontal lobe, supports grammatical processing and language production

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Wernicke's area

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located in the left temporal lobe, plays a role in comprehending word meaning

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Phonemes

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the smallest sound units that signal a change in meaning, such as the difference between the consonant sounds in "pa" and "ba"

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Categorical speech perception

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tendency to perceive as identical range of sounds that belong to the same phonemic class

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Child-directed Speech (CDS)

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A form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts

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Cooing

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babies vowel-like noises (2mths)

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Babbling

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infants repeat consonant-vowel combinations, often in long strings (6mths)

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Joint Attention

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the child attends to the same object or event as caregiver (10-11mths)

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Protodeclarative

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the baby points to, touches, or holds up an object while looking at others to make sure they notice

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Protoimperative

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the baby gets another person to do something by reaching, pointing, and often making sounds at the same time

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Comprehension

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language the child understands

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Production

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languages the child uses

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Fast-mapping

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Children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter

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Referential style

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when toddlers vocabularies consist mainly of words that refer to objects

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Expressive style

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when toddlers vocabularies produce many more social formula and pronouns

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Underextension

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When children apply words too narrowly

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Overextension

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(1-2.5yrs) applying a word to a broader collection of objects and events than is appropriate

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Phonological store

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part of the working memory which supports young children's fast-mapping; permits us to retain speech-based information

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Mutual Exclusivity Bias

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The assumption that words refer to entirely separate (nonoverlapping) categories

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Shape bias

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Previous learning of nouns based on shape heightens attention to the shape properties of additional objects. As a result toddlers readily master more names for objects distinguished by shape, and vocab accelerates

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Syntactic Bootstrapping

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a hypothesis where preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax or the structure of sentences

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Code weitching

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Bilingual children; producing an utterance in one language that contains one or more "guest" words from the other

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Self-recognition

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identification of the self as a physically unique being (2yrs)

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Categorical self

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(18-30mths) they classify themselves and others on the basis of age, sex, or physical selves, and even goodness and badness.

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Remembered Self

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an autobiographical memory, a more coherent portrait than is offered by the isolated episodic memories of the first few years.

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Social cognition

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how children come to understand their multifaceted social world

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Enduring self

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a view of themselves as persisting over time (4yrs)

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Inner self

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aware of having private thoughts and imaginings (2yrs)

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Desire Theory of Mind

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(2-3yrs) They think that people always act in ways consistent with their desires and do not understand that less obvious, more interpretive mental states, such as beliefs, also affect behavior

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Belief-desire theory of mind

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A more sophisticated view in which both beliefs and desires determine actions

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Self-concept

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the set of attribute, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is

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Emotion

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a rapid appraisal of the personal significance of the situation, which prepares you for action.An emotion, then expresses your readiness to establish, maintain, or change your relation to the environment on a matter of importance to you.

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Functionalist Approach to emotion

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Emphasizing that the broad function of emotions is to energize behavior aimed at attaining personal goals

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Basic Emotions

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happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust - are universal in humans and other primates, have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival, and can be directly inferred from facial expressions

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Social Smile

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(6-10 weeks) The parent's communication evokes a broad grin

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Stranger anxiety

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most frequent expression of fear is to unfamiliar adults (6mths)

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Secure base

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(6 mths) Infants use the familiar caregiver as a a point from which to explore, then returning for emotional support

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Self-conscious emotions

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A second, higher-order set of feelings including shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride. Each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self.

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Emotional self-regulation

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the strategies we use to adjust the intensity or duration of our emotional reactions to a comfortable level so we can accomplish our goals

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Problem-centered coping

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(10yrs) they appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it

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Emotion-centered coping

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(10yrs) if problem solving does not work- it's internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome

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Emotional display rules

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specify where, when, and how it is appropriate to express emotions

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Social referencing

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involves relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation (8-10mths)

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Empathy

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a complex interaction of cognition and affect: the ability to detect different emotions, to take another's emotional perspective, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way

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Prosocial/altruistic behavior

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actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

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sympathy

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feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight

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Easy child

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(40%) quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.

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Difficult Child

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(10%) Has irregular daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely.

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Slow-to-warm-up child

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(15%) is inactive; shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli,; is negative in mood; and adjusts slowly to new experiences

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Effortful Control

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the self-regulatory dimension of temperance, involves voluntarily suppressing a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response.

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Inhibited children

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shy; react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli

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Uninhibited

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Sociable; display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli

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Goodness-of-fit model

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explains how temperament and environment together can produce favorable outcomes. Goodness of fit involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning

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Attachment

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the strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress

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Ethological theory of attachment

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recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view.

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Separation anxiety

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Becoming upset when the adult on whom they have come to rely on leaves (6mths-2yrs)

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Internal Working model

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set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self's interaction with those figures.

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Strange Situation

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a widely used laboratory technique for measuring the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age

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Secure Attachment

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These infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately.

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Avoidant attachment

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these infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling.

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Resistant attachmebt

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Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they combine clininess with angry, resistive behavior, struggling when held and sometimes hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry and cling after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.

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Disorganized/disoriented attachment

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This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors - for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures.

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Attachment Q-Sort

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An alternative method suitable for children between 1 and 4 years of age, permits attachment to be assessed through home observation.

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Sensitive caregiving

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responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully

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Interactional synchrony

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a special form of communication separated the experiences of secure from insecure babies. It is best described as a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion, and both partners match emotional states, especially the positive ones.

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Developmentally appropriate practive

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these standards specify program characteristics that meet the developmental and individual needs of young children, based on both current research and consensus among experts.

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Internalization

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Adopting societal standards for right action as one's own

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Induction

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type of discipline; an adult helps the child notice other's feeling by pointing our the effects of the child's misbehavior on others, noting especially their distress and making clear that the child caused it

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Construction

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actively attending to and interrelating multiple perspectives on situations in which social conflicts arise and thereby attaining new moral understandings

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Heteronomous morality

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children in this first stange view rules as handed down by authorities (God, parents, teachers) as having a permanent existence, as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience. (5-10yrs)

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Realism

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Tendency to view mental phenomena including rules, as fixed external features of reality

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Autonomous reality

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2nd stage; they no longer view rules as fixed but see them as flexible, socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suit the will of the majority (10+yrs)

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Ideal reciprocity

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A grasp if the importance of mutuality of expectations, . The idea expressed in the Golden Rule

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Moral Judgement Interview

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Kohlberg; Individuals resolve dilemmas that present conflicts between two moral values and justify their decisions

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Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Forum (SRM-SF)

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For more efficient gathering and scoring of moral reasoning, researcher have devised short-answer questionnaires.

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Preconventional level

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Morality is externally controlled, children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences. behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad, those that lead to rewards as good

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Conventional Level

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Individuals continue to regard conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest. Rather, they believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensure positive human relationships and societal order.

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Postconventional level

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Individuals move beyond unquestioning support for the rules and laws of their own society. They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.

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Moral Self-relevance

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the degree to which morality is central to self-concept

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Moral imperatives

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protect people's rights and welfare

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Social Conventions

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customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and rituals of social interaction

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Matters of Personal Choice

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choice of friends, hairstyle, and leisure activities, which do not violate rights and are up to the individual

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Distribution Justice

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beliefs about how to divide material good fairly

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Compliance

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toddlers show clear awareness of caregivers' wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands (12-18mths)

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Delay of Gratification

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waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act

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Moral Self-regulation

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the ability to monitor one's own conduct constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards

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Self-care children

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regularly look after themselves during after-school hours