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65 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is 'Development'? |
The sequence of physical and psychological changes that human beings under go as they grow older. |
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What is 'Developmental Psychology'? |
The scientific study of age-related changes inbehaviour, thinking, emotion, and personality. |
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What is 'Attachment'? |
A social and emotional bond between infant and caregiver |
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Three aspects of how is Social Development achieved? |
1. Social learning theory - Learning to behave by watching people 2. Cognitive developmental theory - Cognitive development drives social development 3. Parents - First 'drivers' of social behaviour |
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What are 'Peer Relationships'? |
Learn to behave by making choices in frienships |
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Three things about emotional Development |
Children have primary emotions (happy, sad). Some emotions require cognitive development (embarrassment) Understanding other people's feelings Emotional regulation (How to express/deal with emotions) |
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Moral Development |
Behaviour that conforms to a generally accepted set of rules Not doing wrong Doing right |
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Kohlberg's Theory |
Studied boys (10 - 17 years old) Presented subjects with scenarios, then studied responses Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional levels |
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Four issues with Kohlberg's Theory |
Culture and gender biases Effect of the wording of a scenario can change the response Correlation between moral reasoning and conduct Stages may not be coherent entities, but do reflect progression |
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Sex vs. Gender |
Genetic sex - Chromosomes you possess Morphological sex - What you look like Gender identity - Private sense of what you think you are (male or female) |
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Development of gender
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18 months - Beginning of gender typed preference
3 years - Knowledge of own gender - Preference of gender based toys and friends - Ability to assign gender to pictures 5 years - Knowledge of gender constancy |
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Three Biological explanations for gender differences |
1. Aggression in males biologically pre-disposed 2. Anatomy in brain slightly different in each gender 3. Cognitive ability differences partly due to brain differences |
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Montemayer (1974) - Gender based games |
6 and 8 year old boys and girls invited to play a game Some told it was a boys game, others a girls game, and the rest neutral Children liked it more and played it better if it was gender appropriate labelled |
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Morrongiello and Dawber (1999) - Mums vs. Dads during child play |
Examined mum and dad's communication to boys and girls aged 2 - 4 years Mothers more cautious, fathers more encouraging |
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Smith and Lloyd (1978) - How mothers act around boys vs. girls |
Mothers introduced to infants, and told they were either a boy or a girl, when in fact, they were all boys
Big difference as to how the mothers acted |
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Weisner and Silson-Mitchell (1970) - gender stereotypes |
Parent's who don't express gender differences in socialisation raise fewer gender sterotypes |
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Four stages of children's drawings |
Scribbling stage: 2-3 years old Not representative Pre-schematic stage: 3-4 years old Tadpole drawings Schematic stage: 5-6 years old children develop a schema Realistic stage: 9 years old More detail |
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Four issues with child sex abuse testimonies |
1. Children unwilling to disclose abuse 2. Physical evidence rarely present 3. Absence of eyewitnesses 4. Child witness controversy |
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Three things that govern children eye-witness ability |
1. Memory - By age 4 or 5, Children have the capacity to provide forensicallyrelevant information about past events 2. Verbal report/interrogation - Free Recall accounts are highly accurate, but brief. 3. Suggestibility - Children are highly suggestible if questioned. |
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Four problems with children in court |
1. Lack of legal knowledge 2. Scared to confront the accused 3. Courtroom environment 4. Cross-examination by opposing lawyer |
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Demographic Data about Imaginary Companions |
1. Present in up to 65% of preschoolers 2. Slightly more common in girls 3. Averaged between 2-4 year old children 4. More common with first born children 5. Mostly played with in private |
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Characteristics of imaginary companions |
1. Most are imaginary children 2. About 16% based on real people 3. Most have magical powers 4. IC animals can usually talk 5. Not all IC's are friendly – around 3% are enemies |
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Why do children develop imaginary companions? |
1. Help overcome fears 2. Act as scapegoats 3. Surrogate for real friends |
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Ball + Bogatz (1970) - Evolution of Sesame Street |
Found that: Children from low SES families benefited most from Sesame Street. The more Sesame Street a kid watched, the better their results. |
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Boyatzis, Matillo and Nesbitt (1995) - Violence on TV |
Power rangers' condition 7:1 ratio of aggressive acts committed by a child who watched power rangers, compared to a control child |
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Huessman et al. 1984 - violence in children, then their future adult self |
Assessed 8-year old boys for preference for violence on tv Re-assessed at age 30 Boys who exhibited a higher violence preference had committed more serious crimes by age 30 |
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General Video Game Statistics |
1. Average time spent playing per week from childhood into adolescence is 5.5 hours for girls and 13.3 hours for males. 2. 20% male high school students play 3+ hours a day 3. Video game hours increasing |
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Potential benefits of video games |
1. Increase fine motor skills 2. Therapeutic/educational 3. May improve decision making 4. May distract from physical or emotional pain |
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Anderson + Dill (2000) - Effects of violent videogames |
Found that: Non-violent video games can have benefits Violent video games can be dangerous (more dangerous than violent TV) Video games are becoming increasingly violent and realistic |
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Gender Roles vs Gender Stereotypes |
Gender roles - Cultural expectations of how each gender should behave Gender stereotypes - Beliefs about differences in abilities and behaviour of men and woman |
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Cross-Sectional Studies |
A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that analyses data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time. |
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Longitudinal Studies |
A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal research projects can extend over years or even decades. |
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Four different methods of Data Collection in Developmental Psychology |
1. Self-Report 2. Observation 3. Experimental Methods 4. Clinical Interview Methods |
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What is Cognitive Development? |
Cognitive development basically means intellectual growth. Cognitive processes are those by which we get to know ourselves and our world. Forexample, through the development of: Memory, Learning, Attention, Perception, Thought, Problem Solving |
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Sensorimotor Stage |
Birth to 2 years Cognition closely tied to external stimulation “Thinking is doing” (cognition consists entirely of behaviour) |
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Object Permanence in Sensorimotor Stage |
Object permanence – the idea that objects do not cease to exist when theyare out of sight -Birth to 3 months: Look at visual stimuliTurn head towards noise -3 months: Follow moving objects with eyes stares at place where object has disappeared, but will notsearch for object -5 months Grasp and manipulate objectsAnticipate future position of object -8 months Searches for hidden object“A not B” effect -12 months Will search in the last place they saw the object |
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What is a Schema? |
A schema is a mental representation or set of rules thatdefines a particular behaviour category. It helps us to understand current andfuture experiences. |
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Assimilation and Accommodation |
Assimilation – the process by which new information is modified to fit inwith an existing schema Accommodation – the process by which an existing schema is modifiedor changed by new experience |
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Representational Thought |
The ability to form mental representations of others’behaviour. Occurs towards the end of the sensorimotor period |
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Mental Representation is instrumental in... |
Imitation Deferred imitation - a child’s ability to imitate the actions he or she hasobserved others perform in the past Symbolic play The use of words to represent objects |
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Preoperational Stage |
2 to 7 years Ability to think logically as well as symbolically Rapid development of language ability Counting Object Manipulation |
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Conservation in the Preoperational Stage |
The understanding that specific properties of objects (height,weight, volume, number) remain the same despite apparent changes orarrangement of those objects. |
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Egocentrism in the Preoperational Stage |
A child’s belief that others see the world in precisely the sameway that he or she does. |
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Concrete Operations Stage |
7 to 12 years Ability to perform logical analysis Ability to empathise with the thoughts/feelings of others Understanding of complex cause-effect relations |
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Formal Operations Stage |
12 years upward Abstract Reasoning Metacognition Dependent on exposure to principles of scientific thinking |
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Biggest Criticism of Piaget's Theory |
That he underestimated the abilities of children on the whole. |
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Findings of the "Visual Cliff" Experiment |
Children appear to be able to perceive depth around the time they can crawl Even pre-crawling infants may be able to discriminate between the two sides ofthe “cliff” |
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The Understanding of Support in Children (E.g, the understanding that removing a block from a tower will make it fall) |
Develops gradually by 6 months |
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"A not B" Error Criticisms |
The infants don't think its in the area they last found it, they just have difficulty overriding a motor habit. |
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Number and Mathematical Reasoning in Infants |
Piaget said that infants had no concept of number and couldn’t conserve numberuntil they were around 6 years old But even 6-months old show some understanding of number |
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Social Cognition in Infants |
Newborn babies would rather look at faces than scrambled faces At 3 weeks old, infants will attempt to imitate facial expressions 9-month-olds will look in the direction of their mother’s gaze |
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Understanding of "Intentions" in Infants |
6-month-olds understood that the object being reached for is separate tothe reach itself Infants of this age appear to understand actions in terms of intended goals |
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Egocentrism in Infants |
At 2 ½ to 3 ½ children will turn a book around so an adult can see it, and benddown when talking to younger children Children under 1 year will turn to see what their mother is looking at This disproves the Piaget's theory that they don't gain egocentrism till the age of 7. |
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Kohlberg's Theory - Preconventional Level |
Behaviour based on external sanctions, such as authority and punishment |
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Kohlberg's Theory - Conventional Level |
Includes an understanding that the social system has an interest in people’sbehaviour. |
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Kohlberg's Theory - Post-Conventional Level |
Moral rules have some underlying principles that apply to all situations andsocieties |
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Evolutionary Theories for Gender Differences |
Propose that men and women have evolved to behavedifferently, depending their roles in society e.g., Primitive women stayed home and did activities that required finecoordination with small, nearby objects. Men hunted and therefore required agreater level of spatial ability. |
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Children's Drawings used for Projective Measures |
1. Children's drawings have been used to test intelligence. E.g. The draw a person test 2. Psychological Well-being. E.g. The draw a family test 3. They have also been used in Sex Abuse trials. People thought it affected infants would add sexual content to drawings etc. |
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Children's Drawings used for Verbal Communication Aid. |
Butler, Gross, & Hayne (1995)
5- and 6-year-old childrenVisited the Fire Station and were interviewed 1 day later Children that were instructed to draw and tell about the trip reported twice as much information in the DirectRecall phase than the Tell children. The accuracy didn't change for either group |
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Benefits of Drawing Extends to... |
Emotionally laden events Children as young as 3 years and as old as 12 years Delays of up to a year Real clinical settings |
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Historical Views on Imaginary Companions |
Prior to 20th Century IC's may have been described in spiritual or religious terms From the 1930's, parents were informed that IC's were not to be encouraged |
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Social and Cognitive Abilities with IC's |
There is some evidence to suggest that children with ICs: 1. Are better at communicating with adults (Manosevitz et al, 1973) 2. Score more highly on verbal tests (Taylor, 1999) 3. Have a more developed theory of mind at age 4 (Taylor & Carlson, 1997) However there are no firmly established links between the presence of ICs and: 1. IQ 2. Creativity |
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Prevalence of Object Attachments |
Mahalski (1983): New Zealand sample Assessed between ages of 1.5 (90 %) and 7 (43%) years Object attachment peaked at around 2 years |
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Why do Children Develop Attachments to Objects? |
Proposals include: 1. Attachment objects as transitional objects 2. Attachment objects as easing the passage between sleep and waking 3. Attachment objects as substitutes for a primary caregiver in some situations |
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Advantages of Attachment Objects |
Attachment objects can be seen as positive in that they: 1. reduce distress 2. facilitate exploration …in the same way as having a non-involved parent present. |
