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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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emipirical
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based on observation, experience, or experiment; not theoretical
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scientific method
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a way to answer questions that require empirical research and data-based conclusions
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hypothesis
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a specific prediction that is stated in such a way that it can be tested and either confirmed or refuted
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replication
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the repetition of a study, using different participants
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nature
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a general term for the traits, capacity, and limiitations that each indiviual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception
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nurture
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a general term for all the environment influences that affect development after an indivdual is conceived
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difference-equals-deficit error
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the mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard
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dynamic-systems approach
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a view of human development as an ongoing, everchanging interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society
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dynamic interaction
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approach highlights the ever-changing impact that each part of a system has on all the other parts. the classroom scene reflects the eagerness for education felt by many immigrants, the reticence of some boys in an academic context, and global perspective(as demonstrated by the world map). These facets emerge from various systems-family, gender, and culture-and they hsave interacted to produce this moment
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continuity
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signifies developments over time that appear to persist, unchanging, from one age to the next. Parents might recognize the same personality traits in their grown children that they saw in them as infants
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discontinuity
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signifies developments that appear quite different from those that came before. A person, or a researcher might believed that "everything changed" when school started or when puberty began, for instance
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critical period
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a time when a particular type of developmental growth (in a body or behavior) must happen. If the critical period passes without that growth, the person will never grow in that particular way.
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sensitive period
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a time when a certain type of development is most likelt to happen and happens most easily. If that development does not occur during that sensitive period, it could still occur later. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning.
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ecological-systems approach
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the view that in study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life
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cohort
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a group of people who were born at about the same time and thus move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts at about the same age
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socioeconomic status(SES)
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a person's position in society as determined by income wealth, occupation, education, place of residence, and other factors
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the culture of poverty
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in this southern Illinois neighborhood, littered yards are part of a "culture of poverty" that also included poor nutrition, substandard housing, and an average life expectancy of 52 years
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ethnic group
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people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion
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race
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a group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance
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social construction
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an idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions
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mirror neurons
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brain cells that respond to actions performed by someone else in same way they would if the observer had done that actions
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plasticity
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the idea that abilities, personality, and other human traits can change over time. Plasticity is particularly evident during childhood, but even older adults are not always "set in their ways"
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scientific observation
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a method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner, in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data
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survey
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a research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionaires, or some other means
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case study
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a research method in which one individual is studied intensively
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cross-sectinal research
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a reseach design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similiar in other important characteristics
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longitudinal research
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a research design in which the same individual are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
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cross-sequential research
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a hybrid research method in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach)
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correlation
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a number indicated the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation is not an indicator that one variable causes the other, only that the two vairables are related
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quantative research
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reseach that provides data can be expressed with nubers, such as ranks or scales
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code of ethics
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a set of moral principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow
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psychoanalytic theory
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a grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhoood, underle, human behavior
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behavorism
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a grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorsim is also called learning theory because it describes that laws and processes by which behavior is learned
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conditioning
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according to behaviorism, the processes by which repsonses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. the word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time
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clasical conditioning
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the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) that had no special meaning before conditioning.
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operant conditioning
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the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted(which makes the action less likely to be repeated)
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social learning theory
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an extensive of behavorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of people
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modeling
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the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them
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self-efficacy
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in social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter the social context
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cognitive theory
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a grand theory of human develeopment that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
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cognitive theory
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a grand theory of human development that fcuses on changes in how ppl think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape out attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
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cognitive equilibrium
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In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.
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sociocultural theory
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Anemergent theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces
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guided participation
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In sociocultural theory, a techinque in which skilled mentors help novices learn no only by providing instruction but also allowing direct, shared involvemnt in the activity. Also called apprenticeship in thinking
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zone of proximal development
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In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone" surrounding a learner that includeds all the skills, knowledge, and concpets that the person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help
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epigenetic theory
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An emergent theory of development that considers both the genetic origins of behavior (within each person and within each species) and the direct, systematic influence that environmental forces have, over time, on genes
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selective adaption
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The process by which humans and other species gradually adjust to their environment. This process is based on the frequency with which particular genetic trait in a population increases or decreases over generations; that frequency depends on whether or not the trait contributes to the survival and reproductive ability of members of that population
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development theory
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A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.
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eclectic perspective
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The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
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Jitterbug
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Marty, a 9-year-old diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dances energetically in his room. Like all children with ADHD, he is overactive during every waking moment and wherever he is.
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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The molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins.
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chromosome
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One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer chromosomes.
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gene
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A section of a chromosome and the basic unit for the transmission of heredity, consisting of a string of chemicals that are instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins. (about 20,000 in all for a human)
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allele
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Any of the possible forms in which a gene for a particular trait can occur.
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genome
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the full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species.
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gamete
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A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to make a zygote.
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zygote
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The single cell formed from the fusing of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum.
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genotype
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An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
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23rd pair
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The chromosome pair that, in humans, determines the zygote's (and hence the person's) sex. The other 22 pairs are autosomes, the same whether the 23rd pair is for a male or a female.
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XX
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A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of two X-shaped chromosomes, one each from the mother and the father. XX zygotes become females
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XY
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A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of a X-shaped chromosome from mother and a Y-shaped chromosome from the father. XY zygotes become males.
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Monozygotic (MZ) Twins
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Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development, (Also called identical twins.) Other monozygotic multiple births (such as triplets and quadruplets) can occur as well.
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Dizygotic (DZ) Twins
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Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (Also called fraternal twins.)
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Infertility
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The inability to conceive after at least a year of trying to do so via sexual intercourse.
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Assister reproductive technology (ART)
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A general term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and then sustain a pregnancy.
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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
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Fertilization that takes place outside a woman's body (as in a glass laboratory dish). The procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. If the combination produces a zygote, it is inserted into the woman's uterus, where it may implant and develop into a baby.
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Phenotype
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The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits.
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polygenic
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Referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes
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multifactorial
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Referring to a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental.
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Human Genome Project
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An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing.
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Additive Gene
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A gene that has several alleles, each of which contributes to the final phenotype (such as skin color or height).
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Dominant-Recessive Pattern
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The interaction of a pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reveals the influence of one allele (the dominant gene) more than that of the other (the recessive gene).
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Carrier
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A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. Such an unexpressed gene occurs in half of the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to half of the carrier's children, who will most likely be carriers, too. Generally, only when such a gene is inherited from both parents does the characteristics appear in the phenotype.
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X-linked
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Referring to a gene carried on the X chromosome. If a boy inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he expresses that trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene. Girls are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them.
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Heritability
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A statistic that indicated what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes.
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Mosaicism
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A condition in which an organism has a mixture of cells, some normal and some with an odd number of chromosomes or a series of missing genes
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Down Syndrome
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A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with three rather than two chromosomes at the 21st position. People with Down Syndrome typically have distinctive characteristics, including unusual facial features, heart abnormalities, and language difficulties.
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Fragile X Syndrome
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A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules. The cause is a single gene that has more than 200 repetitions of one triplet.
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Genetic Counseling
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Consultation and testing by trained experts that enable individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they might pass along to any children they may conceive.
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
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A genetic disorder in which a child's body is unable to metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine. The resulting buildup of phenylalanine in body fluids causes brain damage, progressive mental retardation, and other symptoms.
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Germinal Period
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The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
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Embryonic Period
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The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.
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Fetal Period
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The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the organs grow in size and mature in functioning.
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Blastocyst
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A cell mass that develops from the zygote in the first few days after conception.
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Placenta
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The organ hat surrounds the developing embryo and fetus, sustaining life via the umbilical cord. The placenta is attached to the wall of the pregnant woman's uterus.
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Implantation
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The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.
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Embryo
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The name from a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception.
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fetus
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The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.
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Age of Viability
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The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus may survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.
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Teratogens
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Agents and conditions, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death.
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Behavioral Teratogens
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Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.
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Teratology
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The study of birth defects.
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Risk Analysis
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The science of weighing the potential effects of a particular event, substance, or experience to determine the likelihood of harm. In teratology, risk analysis attempts to evaluate everything that affects the chances that a particular agent or condition will cause damage to an embryo or fetus.
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Threshold Effect
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A situation in which a certain teratogen is greatly magnified when an embryo or fetus is exposed to more than one teratogen at the same time.
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
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A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and retarded, mental development, that may occur in the child of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant.
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Sonogram
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An image of an unborn fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high frequency sound waves (ultrasound).
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Apgar Scale
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A quick assessment of a newborn's body functioning. The baby's color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice-- at one minute and five minutes after birth-- and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the idea score of 10 (which is rarely attained)
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Cesarean Section
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A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mothers abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina. (AKA C-Section or simply Section).
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Doula
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A woman who helps with the birth process. Traditionally in Latin America, a doula was the only professional who attended childbirths. Now doulas are likely to work alongside a hospital's medical staff to help mothers through labor and delivery
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Cerebral Palsy
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A disorder that results from damage to the brain's motor centers. People with cerebral palsy have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and body movements are impaired.
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Low Birthweight (LBW)
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A body weight at birth of less than 5 and a half pounds (2,500 grams).
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Very Low Birthweight (VLBW)
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A body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams).
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Extremely Low Birthweight (ELBW)
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A body weight at birth of less than 2 pounds, 3 ounces (1000 grams).
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Preterm Birth
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A birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks or the typical pregnancy have elapsed-- that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception
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Small for Gestational Age (SGA)
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A term for a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a 5-pound newborn is considered SGA if born on time but not SGA if born two months earlier. (AKA small for dates).
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Kangaroo Care
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A form of child care in which the mother of a low-birthweight infant spends at least an hour a day holding the baby between her breasts, like a kangaroo that carries her immature newborn in a pouch on her abdomen.
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Parental Alliance
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Cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children. In a parental alliance, the parents agree to support each other in their shared parental roles.
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Postpartum Depression
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A new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth
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Parent-Infant Bond
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The strong, loving connection that forms as parents bold, examine, and feed their newborn.
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