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123 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Robert Fantz
- observed that babies look at different things for different periods of time
- preference method
Preference Method
- studying the visual ability of infants
- 2 visial stimuli presented at same time, the amount the infant looks at each is recorded
- shows infant has preference - if shows preference, he/she can discriminate between the stimuli
Visual Acuity
- the clarity to which visual images can be perceived
- ie. babies look at patterns more.
- test this - show vertical bw stipres vs grey pictures. looks at stripes more. gradually make the stripes thinner - the baby eventually looks at the grey picture because it cant tell the difference between the two
Visual accomodation
the automatic adjustment of the lens of the eye to produce a focused image of the object on the light sensitive tissue at the back of the eye
- in babies, the lens is not like this - it is fixed at a focus distance - typical distance of the mothers face at feeding - WRONG THEORY
- the brain circuits are not sufficient mature to pick up minor differences in the precision of focus
Adams and Courage
- newborns made some colour discriminations - red from green
- but it is mostly limited at birth yet improves radpily in the early monthes
- there is differential maturation of the colour receptor cells in the retina
Peter Salaptek
- newborns look primarily at high contrast edges and move their eyes back and forth over those contrast edges
- demostrated this using triangles - new borms scan only the edges
- when older, the prefer more densly packed patterns
Berthenal and Shapiro - infants organization
- used circle and square illusions
- habituated the infant - and then tested for dishabiutation with either an illusion stimulus or a non illusion
- 5monthes - did not detect differences
- 7monthes - tected change only in illusion - can group elements perpectually
Mondloch - using Fantz method
-- measured attention to statis faces - not moving faces
- respond differentially to face
- it is "faceness" that attracts newborn
-
Pascalis - why recognize the mothers face from birth?
- a. determained preference for the mothers face
- b. re did it but with a difference - women wore scarves that covered their foreheard and hair
- with scarves, new borns couldnt determain which was their mother.
- rely on PERIPHERAL VISION - hairline and shape of head
Size Constancy
- the phyiscal size of an object remains the same even though the size of its projected image on the eye varies
ex. child in front of you seems shorter than adult accorss the street even though the child has a larger image in your eye
Shape Constancy
- the physical shape of an object reamins the same, even though the shape of its projected image on the eye varies
Brightness Constancy
- the brightness of an object remains the same even though the amount of light it relfects back to the eye changes (b/co f shadows)
- ex. dress is still dark weather in dim light or in direct sunlight
Colour Constancy
- the colour of an object remains the same even though the wavelengiths it relfelct back to the eye changes (b/c of the changes in the colour of the illuminating light - flourescant light vs sunlight)
Study : Size Constancy
- two cudes - one 2x as large as the other
- 1. receives a series of familiarization trials - one cube (smaller) presented at different distances - distance and size of retinal image vary, only size of cube is constant.
- 2. test trials - both cubes prestented same time - different distances - larger cube 2x farther than smaller cube.
- which one will baby look at longer? all babies looked at the larger one. they could see a difference between the two!!! even though equal retinal images - found the small cube less interesting - familiar and could only do so if they noted a diference in sizes between the two.
Study: Object Continuity
- 4 month old babies
- a. looked at a long rod paritally hidden by a block until their interest decline
- b. then shown the same rod or 2 different rods
- results: they looked longer at the same rod than the 2 seperate ones - showing they did not see object continuity - thought the same rod was novel
Study : Object Continuity revised
- a. saw a bar move out from in front of a sphere that had been partially blocked
- b movement realved either a whole sphere or 2 seperate halves
- have no success in demonstaniting that infants could infer more aout objects.
Gibson and Walk - Visual Cliff
- testing infants perception of depth
- infant is placed on a glass-covered talbe near an apparent drop off and perception of depth is inferred if the infants avoids the drop off
- even with their mother calling them, most infants didnt cross - aware of depth and danger
Depth Cues
- pictorial cues

- relative size
Pictorial cues
- visial cues that indicate the relative distance of ovjects through static, picture like information
ex. interposition of one ojbect infront of another
- objects nearer may hide objects that are farther along the same line of sight
- relative size - dog is larger than car in picture - think car is father away
Kinetic Cues
- produced by movement - by observer or object
- MOTION PARALLAX - an observers expeirence that a closer object moves accross the feild of view faster than a more distant object when both objects are moving at the same speef or when the objects are stationary and when the observer moves
- nearer object moves faster
Two types of coding location in space
- egocentric coding and allocentric coding
egocentric coding
- the understanding of space and objects is tied to ones own actions and body
- babies - find object to the right, expect it to be at the right again.
allocentric coding
- the understanding of space and objects is tied to other objects and landmarks in the environment
Lida Acredolo - Spatial shift
- wall to each side of infant was a window
- learned to turn at look at one window to make an interesting display appear
- 1/2 had a landmark, other half none
- b. after learning to turn response, the chair began to rotate 180 degrees so the correct response was to turn right instead of left
- use landmark - allocentric, use body = egocentric
- 6 month and 11 mnts - turned left - used their body
- oldest grop responded correctly
prepared relation
- relations for which the baby is predisposed by biology but that are also modifiable by expereince
- ex. vision and reaching
haptic perception
- refers to active exploration by means of touch
ex. baby with a rattle
Melztoff and Borton - vision and haptic
- 1 month olds with either a nubby nipple or a smooth nipple
- then showed pictures of nubby and smooth nipples side by side
- infatns looked longer at the one they sucked.
Study: touch to vision connection
- given the impression they were reaching for an object relfect in a mirrror - actually reaching for an object hidden behind the mirror
- a. trick trials - babies felt a furry object while viewing a smooth object or vice verse
- b. non trick trials - the objects matched
- 8mnths - did not show different facial expressions for the two
- 9-11 mnths showed more surprise during the trick trial - mismatch!
Study: Spelke - hearing and vision
- showed 4 mnths babies 2 films side by side
- 1 film - peekabook
2. film - handhitting block and tambourine
- a sound track was played appropricate to one of the films
- babies looked more at the film that matched the soundtrack
Study: Spelke and Cortelyou
- 4 month olds 2 films with adult female strangers as speakers
- 1 film did the movement of the speakers lips correspond to the sound track
- they looked more at that one.
Attention
- the active, selective taking in of some but not all of the potentially available information in a situation
-
Sokolov - Orienting Reflex
- a natural reaction to novel stimuli that enhances stimulus processing and includes the orientation of the eyes and ears to optimize stimulus reception, inhibtion of ongoing activity and a variety of physiological changes
ex. new borns - attend to moving lights
mild sounds and sighs
Defensive Relfex
- a natural reaction to novel stimuli that tends to protect the infant from further stimulation - oritentation of stimulus receptors away from the stimulus source and psychological changes
ex. eyes close
Selective Attention
- the infants ability ot focus on one stimulus rather than another
ex. intermediate brightness over extreme, patterned vs not
- concentration on a stimulus with attendant disregard for other stimuli
Pop-out and visual search
- ex. popout - looking for red rain coat and all are grey
- ex. visual search - looking for red rain coat and all are different colours
- time it takes does for pop out does not change as the # of grey coats increases, detection time increases as the number of diff. colour coats increases
-
Adler - eye movements - pop out
- 3mnths
- shown to exhibit that exact same pattern when searching for a + among L's - time does not increase with number of Ls added
- when the + was not prestent, the time it took to intiate an eye movement to one of the Ls increased as the number of Ls increased - same with adults.
- function same in adults and infants
inhibition of return
- when searching for a particular item among many, we inhibit from going back to items or locations to which we have previously attended and searched
- increases the liklihood the item will be found fast
- 6 monthes of age
disengage
- what we must do to shift attention from the item to wich it is currently deployed
- younger infatns slower at this
absolute stimulation
- they can be specified independantly of the observer
ex. contrast and curvature
Relative stimulation
- they msut be defined with respect to a particular perceiver
- ex. novelty - it is novel to someone who hasnt seen it before
- common in adults not in yougger than 3 monthes that are most interesting
Study: Action can anticipate perception
- form expectations
- see interactive pictures that flash in a present spatial pattern on a compouter screen - ex. LR LR
- can they learn the sequence and begin to look at the next location prior to the pictures appearance
- YES - quickly.
prospective movement
- directed not just to current reality but also to anticipated future reality
- reach to an anticipated future site
Flavell - 4 aspects of attention that devlop with age
1. control
2. adaptability
3. planfulness
4. adjusting
Control (Flavell)
- attention span increases and distractivility decreases
- ex. TV
Adaptibility (Flavell)
- attention to the task also changes
- ex. experimenter say pay attention to a partcilar task
- older - central aspects
- younger - do not do well - pay attention to irrevalent features
Planfulness (Flavell)
- when comparing 2 objects
- older children are more systematic - compare details
- younger - dont use details
Adjusting (Flavell)
- gather information from task as get older
- older - change reading speed as the difficulty changes, not in younger kids
Rogoff - childrens attention
- observed toddlers in the US and Mayan toddlers in Guatemala in situations in which there were potentially many stimuli and events to attend to
- Mayan tolders more likely to attend to 3 events at once not a single one
- kids did what their mothers do
Information processing
- the goal is to specify underlying psychological processes and the developmental changes they undergo
- thinking
- information is acted on pr processed in various ways as it moves through the system
- REAL GOAL - specify completly and preciesly what comes between the stimulus and the response
2 images for information processing
- the computer
- the flowchart
The flowchart of information processing
- 1. environmental input
- endpoint - response output
- stimulus and response = some psycholgical processes

ex. of memory - acted on and transformed in various ways
ex. 6 yr old - hear word for first time, a. enters sensory register (auditory) where a literal representation is held for a second b. short term/working memory - word moves there - active for conscoius processing c. may go to long term memory - where it exists forever.
Control Processes
- in the flow chart
- affect the maintenance of information and the movement from one store to another
Resonse generateing mechanisms
- neceaary to explain the evential overt response - ex. child ability to say a recently learned word
The computer metaphor for information processing
- describes the information processing
- stores representations or symbols - and manipulates them to solve problems rapidly
- both limited in the amount they can store
- both are adaptive and can modify
cognition
- higher order mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving throught which humans attempt to understand the world
ex. thinking, reasoning etc
organization
- basic principle of biology - an organism is never simply a random collection of cells, tissues and organs - rather they are highly organized systems
Piaget - essence of intelligence
- not in individually learned responses or isolated memories - but in the unerlying organization in cognitive structures
- human intelligence is an adaptive measure
Adaption - piaget
- occurs through assimilation and accomodation that is how cognitive development occurs
Piagets stages of development
- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Piagets 6 substages for sensorimotor
1. excersising relfexes ex. automatic biolgical responses to stimuli - building blocks for future developmental prceeds - when babies assimilate more things, they begin to accomodate
2. developing scemes - sensorimotor scemes - sucking scheme applied to innumerable objects - 2 changes: a. the grasping is a primitive affiair whereas it expands with age. b. the coordination of initially independant schemas
3. discovering procedures - infant begins to show clearler interest for the outside world - explore environment - disovers procedures for reproducing interesting events - accidentaly
4. intentional behaviour - perceives a desirable goal and figures out how to acheive it - use familiar schemes
5. novelty and exploration - deliberatly and systematic behaviour with new schemes and new effects - completly new solutions - active experimentation
6. mental representation - ask out the world internally - imaging the problem and the solution
Sensorimotor schenes
- stage 2 in the 6 substages
- skilled and generalizable action patterns by which intants act on and understand the world ... the cognitive structures of infancy
- ex. sucking scehem
Intentional Behaviour
- behaviour in which the goal exists prior to the action selected to acheive it - made possible by the ability to seperate means from end
Mental Representation
- the use of symboles to picture and act on the world internally
ex. grass ideas
ex. in transition - opening mouth for game
object permanece
-our knowledge that objects have a permanent existence that is indepependant of our perception of them
- piaget - major acheivement of sensiromotor period - during the 3rd substage that babies search for the "missing" object only if they see it and if their action removed it stage 4- look for it regalress of the stuff above BUT anotberror. 5 - can handle this limition - only if the infant sees the object being moved not if invisidle displacements
- solution in stage 6 - symbolic functioning
A-not-B error
- in substage 4
- infants tend to search in the original location in which an object was found rather than in its most recent hiding place
- related to object permaneace
progressive decentering
- graudal decline in egocentrism that occurs accorss development
- infants have a tonne of egocentrism
egocentrism
- inability to distringuish the self from the outer wolrd
- in infancy
- in later childhood, the inability to distingius ones own persepctive from that of others.
themes in piagets approach to development
1. progressive decentering
2. invariants
Invariants
- aspects of the world that reamins the same even though other aspects of change
- different forms are understood at different stages
- child must learn what stays the same in face of constant change
habituation
- a declined response to a repeated stimulus
dishabituation
- the recory of response when the stimulus changes
Study: Baillargeon - violation of obejct permanece
- babies shown a screen that rotated like a bridge - 180 degree arc
- eventually habituated to it
- a wooden box was placed directly in the path of the screen - could see it at the beginning of the trail but it dissapearing with the height of the screen
1. possible event - the screen rotated to the point when it reached the box and stopped - as it should
2. impossible event - screen kept going past the box
results: looking times shot up when they viewed the impossible event not the possible event
- infants must have known the box still existed - thus expected screen to stop
Meltozoff and Moore - imiatation
- contradict piaget
- videotaping infants face as an adult model performs the target behaviour
- scored by someone unaware of the behaviour being modelled.
- even newborms can imitate both mouth opening, and toungue out - more often with the model there than not there.
symblolic function
- the defining characteristic from the sensorimotor to the preoperational period
- the ability to use one thing (mental image or word) as a sybol to represent something else
5 behaviours evident at the preoperational stage
1. internal problem solving
2. the invisible displacements of object permeaneace
3. ability to use words - talk about them in their abscense
4. deferred imitation
5. symbolic play
deferred imitation
- imitation of a model observed some time in the past
- ex. behaviour from an older sibling preformed a week beofre
symbolic play
- form of play from which a child uses one thing in deliberate pretence to stand for something else
- ex. sticks into boats
Qualitative identity
- the knowledge that the qualitative nature of something is not changed by a change in its appearance
- preoperational acheivment
ex. a wire is the same wire even after it has been bent
Devires - qualitative identity
- exposed preschool participants to a docile black cat
- then was transformed with a mask into a fierce looking dog
- after this, she asked children about what kind of animal they now saw - what kind of sounds or food it would eat
- 3 yrs old - thought it was dog
- 5-6 year olds affirm the qualitative idenditiy - was a cat still
Weaknesses of preoperational thought
- egocentrism
- centration
Strengths of preoperational thought
- faster
- internal
- think about past and future
- more social
- qualitative identity
Egocentric Speech
- the tendency for preoperational children to assume that listeners know everything that they know
- difficulty in speaking
Three-mountain problem
- children assume the visual perspective of another
- indicate what the doll would see from different locations
- his or her perspective is the only one.
Centration
- young childs tendany to focus on only one aspect of a problem at a time - a perceptually biased form of responding that often results in incorrect judgments
The Conservation Problem
- acts out the concept of centration
- the realization that the quantitative propoerties of objects are not changed by a change in appearance
ex. 2 rows of 5 chips
- if we spread the row until one is longer, every 3 or 4 year old will say the longer row has more - say becasue it is longer - centrates on the length of the row and doesnt conserve the number
concrete operational stage
- child masters various forms of conservation - QUANTITIVE properites of objects
Class inclusion problem
- best known for a childs understanding of the structure or logic of any classification system
- definition: the knowledge that a subclass cannot be larger than the subordinate class that it includes.
ex. 20 wooden beads - 17 red and 3 white. asked weather more red beads or more wood ones - always say more red.
- child focuses on the salient subclass - what is perpetually obvious and ignores other information.
- the concrte operational child can solve this problem - uses logic to answer - knows there can NEVER be more red beads then wooden ones .
Seriation task
- do to with relational reasoning
- the ability to order stimuli along some quantitive dimension such as length
ex. present 10 sticks of different lengths all around a table
- order the stiskcs in terms of lenths
- preoperational child cannot do this - 2 dimenional noncentrated approahc
Transitivity of quantitive relation
- the ability to combine relations logicaly to deduce neceaary conclusions for ex. if A>B, and B>C thus A>C.
- not for preoperational
- ability to add together two premises to decide the correct answer.
Concrete operations
- during middle childhood
- how childs overt behaviour is a guide to their underlying cognitive structures.
Operations
- Piaget
- various forms of mental action through which older children solve problems and reason logically
- operating on the world inorder to understand it
- exist as an organization of interrelated cognitive structures
- INTERNAL - logical in the head problem solving
Sensorimotor schemes
- overt action - reaching, graping, manipulating
Decentration
- the ability to keep in mind multiple aspects of a situation all at the same time
- appreciate identity
Reversibility
-piaget
- the power of operations to correct for potential disturbances and thus arrive at correct solutions to problems
- examles are compensation and inversion.
- understanding of the world
- concrete operaitional
Study: DeLoache - maps
- preschool child
- hide and seek game
- snoopy doll hidden somewhere in the room, child has to find it
- challenging - lots of hiding spots
- helpful addition- model of the room
- can the child use this symboliic equivalence to solve the task - at 3 years they can
- symbolic competance
Dual Representation
- DeLoache
- young children NEED this and cant solve the map problem
- the realization that an object can be represented in 2 ways simultaneously
- cant think of things as objects and symbols
***young children might be more succesful if the symbol ere less objectlike. ex. picture instead of model
Study: Gelman - 3yr olds and know. of invariance of numbers
- first played a game in which they learned that a plate with three toy mice affixed to it was a "winner" and one with two mice was a "loser"
- critical test trial: 3 mice place was transformed while hidden (lentgth changed or one mice removed)
- results: unfazed by the change of length. change of number responseded different - reconigtion othat the number should remain invariant.
Concrete
- the basic limiation of concrete operational thought
- concrete operational children cant deal with the hypothetical - whole world of posibility
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
- distinguishing characteristic of formal operational thought stage
- a form of problem solving characterized by the ability to generate and test hypotheses and draw logical conclusions from the results of the tests.
ex. imagined worlds, life dreams
Formal Operational Thought
- starting point is the world of possibility
- workds back to what happens to be true in the situation understudy
- less focused on immediate reality
Inhelder and Piaget - Pendulums
- studying formal operations - scientific reasoning
- participant must determine what factors influence the bendig of a rod
- use chemicals to deermine which combinations determian a specific outcome
- psychics example - shown a pendulum
- figure out what determains the freq. of oscilliation of pendulum
- answer: length of string.
- formal operational thingker can use cogntiive structures that allow systematic solution of the problem. test them out.
- have to systematically consider all possibilites
Di Lisi and Staudt - objection to piaget at formal level
- it depends on someones interest how well they do in the task
- depend on the fit between academic training and specific tasks
ex. physics majors did best on the pendulum task
Criteria for a stage theory to be valid
- qualitative and quantitve changes
- follow an invariant sequence
- important concurences

problem: children do not act consistent.
Piaget: 4 factors that contribute to cognitive change
1. biological maturation
2. physical experience
3. social expereince (assimilation)
4. equilibration
equilibration
- the biological processes of self regulation that propels the cognitive system to higher forms of equilibruim
- the general biological process of self regulation
- the ultimate explanation for sveral aspects of development
- explains motivation
- acounts for directionality in development
equilbrium (piaget)
- used to explain self regulation
- a charac. of the cognitive system in which assimiation and accomodation are in balance thus permiting adaptive and non distored responses to the world
concept
- a mental grouping of different items into a single category on the basis of some unifying similarity or set of similarities
- some common core that makes them all essentially the sam thing
- how we organize the world
Concepts in children - Gelman and Markman
ex. birds and cold legs
- if taken critically - the new item should be juded to be like the one it most resemlbes
- if category membership more important - look at the birds.
**contrast - surface similairty vs underlying essense
- kids focus on the surface not what lies beneath.
- MAJOR CONCLUSION - young kids cut up the world like adults do - opted for category membership not perceptual cues
Animism - Piaget
- the young childs tendency to attritube properties of life to non living things
- make error - sun shines becasue it wants to
- gap in biological understanding
- use self propelled movement to distinguish
- use growth
- origins and kinsip
Theory of the mind
- thoughts and beleifs concerning the mental world
- beleifs? desires? intentions?
False Beleife
- childrens understanding
- realizing that people can hold beleifs that are not true - typically acquired during preoperational period - evidence to distinguish between mental and non mental
ex. where sally will shearch for her marble
- 3yr olds cant understand false beleifs
- older kdis will realize they can hold a beleif that is false - ie they will say its in the basket not in the box (false beleif)
Appearance-reality distinction
- distincition between how objects appear and what they really are - understanding this implies an ability to judge both appreance and reality correctly when the two diverge
- ex. show a red car - cover it with a black screen. ask what colour it really truly is - 3 yr old say black, 6 yr old say red.
Bosacki and Astington - childrens understanding of the mental world and interaction teaching
- positive realtion btwn # of siblings and false beleif understandings
- largers families = faster to master false beleif
- heightend expercience on mental states
immanent justice
- piaget
- children think that they become ill becasue they are being punished
- punishment automatically ollows an occurrence of a misdeed
joint attention
- usuing cues to identify and share the attentional focus of another
ex. direction of gaze
- in infancy
- understanding the mother is a psychological being
- HUMAN OBJECTS ONLY.
social referencing
-using information gained from other people to interpret uncertain situations and to regulate ones own behaviour
- ex. see mom say hi to a stranger (new face) do the same
- experience the mothers psyychological state
- not in infancy
- HUMAN OBJECTS
Computer Simulation
-information processing theororists - use computers as a method
- programming a computer to perform cognitive task in the same way humans are thought to perform it
- tests the investigators theori of how children arrive at their answers
Connectionism
- today, creating self modifying systems take this approach
- the creation of aritifical neural networks, embodied in computer programs that solve cogntive tasks and modify their solutions in response to experience.
- adopted by infoprocessing reseacrhers.
Gender Constancy - Kohlberg
- goes from gender identity, gender stability to gender consistency.
- stable for all cultures
Taylor - gender sterotyping study
- presented chilren with a story of a baby raised on an only with only members of the opposite sex
- asked which gender characteristic the baby would display:
- younger than 9 or 10 - predicted the baby bioloigcal sex would determain its characteristics
- above age - said social environment woould influence the baby - adopt characteristics.
Gender and social judegemnts
- young children rely on the basis of the childs gender to determain conflciting information
- older children reply more on individuation information
Serbin et all - Preference method for gender
- prestened 24 month olds with photos of male and a female engagnng in the same activity
- assesed the length of time the infants spent looking at each
- activitiees were either sterotypical male or sterotypical female or neutral
- infants stares longer at males engaging in female sterotgype activites - gender sterotyping.
- none for males and females engaging in male stereotype acts
Serbin et all - preference for gender younger age
- aged 12, 18 and 23 monthes
- shown paired photoes of male stertype and female stereotyped toy
- at 12 monthes - looked at dolls more than trucks - similarity of dolls faces?
- 18-23 monthes - girls looked longer at dolls and boys looked longer at vehciles - sex preference at an early age
- part 2 - pictures paired with photos of male and female children - 18-24 month gilrs matched gender appropaite faces to the toys NOT boys.

**gender sterotyped toys emerge between afe 12-18 monthes and awareness of gender sterotypes follows after (earlier in girls)