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92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social development includes? |
Emotion Personality Attachment Self Peer relationships Morality Gender |
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Freud: personalitystructure |
id: “pleasure” principle ego: “reality” principle superego: internalization of and standards foracceptable orunacceptablebehaviours Libido and fixation |
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Freud: Stages of psychosexualdevelopment first stage?? |
Oral (first year) The primary source of satisfaction and pleasure isoral activity. During this stage, the mother isestablished as the strongest love-object. |
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Freud: Stages of psychosexual development second stage?? |
Anal (1-3 years) The primary source of pleasure comes fromdefecation. |
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Freud: Stages of psychosexual development third stage?? |
Phallic (3-6 years) Characterized by the localization of pleasure in thegenitalia. (Oedipus complex vs. Electra complex) |
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Freud: Stages of psychosexual development Fourth Stage?? |
Latency (6-12 years) Characterized by the channeling of sexual energyinto socially acceptable activities. |
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Freud: Stages of psychosexual development Fifth Stage?? |
Genital (12+ years) Sexual maturation is complete and sexual intercoursebecomes a major goal. |
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Freud: psychosexualdevelopment |
Implication: childhood experiences and conflictsheavily influence our adult interest, behavior andpersonality If fundamental needs are not met during anystage, children may become fixated on theseneeds, continually attempting to satisfy them. |
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Erickson: psychosocialdevelopment (In comparison to Freud) |
Stress that children are active (Freud: passive slavesto biological urges) Ego function: people must cope with socialrealities at each stage to display a normal patternof development (Freud: ego is simply a mediator) Stress social/cultural influences (Freud: sexual urges) Eight age-related stages (Freuds: five during childhood andadolescence) |
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Erickson: Stages of PsychosocialDevelopment First Stage?? |
Trust vs. Mistrust (first year) Forms basis for later intimate relationship |
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Erickson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Second Stage?? |
Autonomy vs. Shameand doubt(1–31⁄2 years) Gaining self-control without the loss of self-esteem |
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Erickson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Third Stage?? |
Initiative vs. Guilt (4–6 years) Identify with their parents; Internalization ofthe parents’ rules and standards |
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Erickson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Fourth Stage?? |
Industry vs. Inferiority (6–puberty) Mastering cognitive and social skills, learn towork industriously, and play well with others |
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Erickson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Fifth Stage?? |
Identity vs. RoleConfusion (adolescence–earlyadulthood) Caught between their past identity as a childand the many options and uncertainties oftheir future, adolescents must resolve theiridentity or live in a confusion |
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Psychoanalytic theories |
- Stress the internal drives and biologicalmaturation - Stress the continuity of individualdifferences - Influential - Neither makes testable predictions |
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Learning theories |
Experiences shape human mind, personalityand behaviour. - Emphasize continuity - Focus on the role of specific mechanisms ofchange |
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John Watson |
The founder of behaviourism - Drive for development: their social environment - Primary mechanism of change: learning throughconditioning - “LittleAlbert” - Psychological Care of Infant and Child |
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systematic desensitization |
extinguishing fear through aform of therapy based on classical conditioning |
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B. F. Skinner |
-Behavior shaped by instrumental conditioning - Every act is an operant response based on outcomes of past behaviour - Attention is a powerful reinforcer (e.g. timeout) - Consistency is the key |
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Self-socialization |
Children’s active shaping of their own development through their activity preferences, friendshipchoices, and other behaviors |
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Selman’s theory |
Focuses on role taking – the ability to adopt theperspective of another person, thereby betterunderstanding that person’s behavior, thoughts, andfeelings |
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Selman’s stages ofdevelopment Stage One ?? |
6-8 Years Realizing that another person can have adifferent perspective from their own, due todifferent information they possess |
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Selman’s stages of development Stage Two? |
8-10 Years - become able to think about the otherperson’s point of view |
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Selman’s stages of development Stage Three?? |
10-12 Years - systematically compare their own and theother’s points of view |
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Selman’s stages of development Stage Four?? |
12+ Years - Adolescents can compare another person’sperspective to that of a generalized other |
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Dodge’s information-processingapproach |
Emphasizes the role of cognitiveprocesses in social behaviour - Aggression in children’s behaviour: Hostile attributional bias: thetendency to assume that other people’sambiguous actions stem from a hostileintent |
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Hostile attributional bias |
the tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent |
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Dweck’s social cognitiveperspective "view of intelligence" |
Incremental: Intelligence canbe developed throughefforts Entity: Intelligence isfixed and unchangeable |
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Dweck’s social cognitive perspective "view of challenge" |
Mastery: meeting challengesand overcoming failures Helpless: doubt herabilities, avoid hardtasks |
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Dweck’s social cognitive perspective "Self-esteem" |
Neither incremental or mastery: Based on ones’ own effortand learning Neither entity/helpless orientation: Based upon approvalthey receive from otherpeople |
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Dweck’s social cognitive perspective "evaluating ones own performance" |
Neither incremental or mastery: Focuses on efforts andlearning from mistakes Neither entity/helpless orientation: Focuses on outcomes |
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Ethology |
The study of the evolutionary basis ofbehavior. |
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Imprinting in animals |
a form of learning in which the youngof some species of newborn birds and mammalsbecome attached to and follow adult members ofthe species (Konrad Lorenz) |
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Imprinting in humans |
Imprinting = bonding - Emotionally attached to the first person they saw - Pattern his/her behaviour - Learn to talk - Sexual imprinting may happen too... |
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Evolutionary psychology |
Applies Darwinian concepts of natural selection and adaptation to human behaviour Basic idea: certain genes predisposeindividuals to behavior that enhance survivalchances |
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The social brain hypothesis |
The idea that the large brains of humans, as well as thegeneral intelligence of humans, has evolved in responseto social conflicts and challenges that are an inherentpart of group living. Mammals who lived in the largest social groups often had the largest neocortex to brain ratio |
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“parental-investment” |
Theory of evolutionarypsychology explains why parents spend so muchtime and energy in raising their children - Evolutionary psychologists believe that the lengthyperiod of human children’s immaturity anddependence has adaptive benefits - Play provides a platform for learning and to developsocial-cognitive skills |
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What are emotions? |
Components: - Physiological correlates - Subjective feelings - The thoughts that accompany feelings - The desire to take action |
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Discrete emotions theory |
Emotions are innate. - Each emotion is packaged with a specificand distinctive set of bodily and facialreactions at birth. |
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Functionalist approach to emotions |
Emphasize the role of environment inshaping emotions. - At birth, emotions are not discrete fromone another and develop in response tothe social needs. |
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Development of a smile? |
First month: reflex response By 3rd month: social smiles toward people By 7th month: familiar people; encourages interactionand bonding |
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Development of Happiness? |
By 2nd Month: when the infant controls an event |
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Development of Laughing? |
By the 3rd or 4th month: During activities(play) Almost 12 months: response to unexpected events During 2nd year: response to own behaviour or attempting to make others laugh |
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Development of Generalized Stress? |
Newborns: Hunger, pain, overstimulation |
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Development of anger and sadness? |
2nd month: visible facial expression matches situation |
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Development of fear and distress? |
6-7 months to 2 years: fear of strangers 7-12 months: fear of novel toys, noises, sudden movements (gets parents to respond) 8 months to 13 or 15 months: separation anxiety |
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Self-ConsciousEmotions |
Depend on how we understand ourselvesand our relationship to others - 15–24 months: embarrassment - 2 year old: Guilt and shame - 3 year old: Pride |
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Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Types |
Easy babies: 40% of infants; adjust easily tonew situations, quickly establish routines, aregenerally cheerful and easy to calm Difficult babies: 10% of infants; slow toadjust to new experiences, likely to reactnegatively and intensely to stimuli and events Slow-to-warm-upbabies: 15% of infants;somewhat difficult at first but become easierover time. |
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The Development of EmotionalRegulation |
Temperamental difference in babies Newborn: Parents help by controlling exposure to stimuli, removing the source of frustration or fear. Six-month olds: “self-soothe” 1 year old: use language talk to regulateexpression of emotions (adults should teachchildren how to express emotions in sociallyacceptable ways). 2 years old: delay of gratification |
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Display Rules |
a social group’s informal norms aboutwhen, where, and how much one should show orsuppress emotions. - Huge cultural variation in Emotional Display Rules |
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What is attachment? |
The close and enduring bond between childrenand their parents or other primary caregivers. |
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Harlow’s Monkeys |
Experimental work with Rhesus Monkeys - Monkeys raised with their mothers: content, ready to explore and play - Monkeys raised without their mothers:maladjusted socially throughout their lives - surrogate mothers experiment - open-field experiment - social isolation experiment |
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Attachment Theory |
Developed initially by John Bowlby. - children are biologically predisposed to developattachment with caregivers as a means of increasingthe chances of survival - children develop internal working model of attachment: mental representation of - self - attachment figure - relationships in general |
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Attachment Theory Preattachment |
birth - 6 weeks Innate signals that bring the caregiver |
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Attachment Theory Attachment-in-the-making |
6 weeks - 6/8 months the child forms expectations about how the caregiver will respond |
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Attachment Theory Clear-cut Attachment |
6/8 months- 1/2 years old child seeks contact with caregiver (secure base) Separation protest/distress |
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Attachment Theory Reciprocal relationships |
from 1/2 years to 2+ Mutually regulated relationships |
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Mary Ainsworth's Strange Task |
measuring a childs attachment relations to a parent |
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Ainsworth Attachment Categories |
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What influences Attachment? |
Parental sensitivity to distress and play - Consistent: secure attachment - Inconsistent response time: anxious resistant - Less likely to respond: avoidant Parental attachment status |
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Cultural Variations in Attachment |
Similarities in Strange Situation behavior are seenin infants in China, Western Europe, and parts ofAfrica But there are some differences: - Japanese infants are much less likely to be avoidant and infants and mothers are physically closer than in the United States. - Communally raised children are less likely to besecurely attached (as in an orphanage) |
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Children’s Temperament &Attachment |
- The child’s temperament influences the parent’s behaviour and the security of thechild’s attachment - Parents may be frustrated by difficult children - Children who are problematic or abnormalelicit negative responses from parents and aremore likely to be insecure than are otherchildren |
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How does abuse and neglectinfluence attachment? |
Children who are rejected by their parents will have difficultydeveloping emotional intimacy - "parentification" of the child. - Transgenerational nature of attachment problems |
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Problems in maltreated childrenwith attachment problems |
Eating Soothing behaviour Emotional functioning Socialization Aggression |
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Traditional Nuclear family |
A family consisting of a husband, a wife, and their children modernly - two parents and at least one child living together |
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Extended family |
A family in which not only parents and their children butother kin—grandparents, cousins, nephews, or more distantfamily relations—share a household |
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Tiger mother |
no sleepovers no play dates no grade lower than an A on report cards no choosing your own extracurricular activities no ranking lower than No. 1 in any subject |
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Helicopter parents |
“Hovers” over every aspect of their children’s adult life - Overprotective - Treating adult children in a childish way |
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Parenting behaviours and attitudes |
Parenting behaviors and attitudes set the emotionalclimate of parent-child interactions Responsiveness: parental warmth, support, and acceptance vs.parental rejection and non responsiveness Demandingness: parental control and expectations |
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Factors Affecting ParentingStyle: Children |
Physical attractiveness - parents take better care of pretty childrenthan they do ugly ones Temperamental, behavioral differences |
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Family relations: siblings |
Sibling rivalry - competition for attention, time, and resources - fair does not mean equal - stress the uniqueness of each child It is more about parents’ attitude than their relationships witheach other. Siblings also get along better if their parents have goodrelationships with each other |
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Adolescents as Parents (Negative consequences) |
Negative consequences for both the motherand the child: - Curtailing the mother’s opportunities foreducation, career development, and normal peerrelationships - Children are more likely to exhibit behaviorproblems and cognitive delays |
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Adolescents as Parents (Ways to improve) |
Ways to improve the outcome: - more knowledge about child development and parenting reduce children's problematic behaviours - a strong attachment to the biological father or a stepfather |
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Factors Affecting theImpact of Divorce |
- Level of parental conflict priorto, during, and after a divorce - Stress experienced by thecustodial parent and childrenin the new family arrangement - Contact with noncustodialfather - Age of the child - Personality of the child |
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Effects of MaternalEmployment |
-long hours of maternal employment earlyin an infant’s life may have somenegative effects on early cognitivedevelopment - Daughters of working mothers tend tobenefit from exposure to egalitarianparental roles in the family - Boys of working mothers sometimesexhibited more problem behaviour - The effect of maternal employment ismore positive if the mother wants to workand is doing what she likes. |
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How is Day Care a fact of life |
Canada: in 2002-2003, about 54% ofCanadian children aged six months to fiveyears were in some type of non-parentalchild care. |
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Is Daycare Bad forChildren? |
Attachment: No direct correlation. Family characteristics (e.g. level of income, maternal education, and maternal sensitivity) aremore important for attachment Social Development: mixed, depending on the age of children, hours in the day care center, and the quality of the day care. Cognitive Development: mixed, depending on the quality of the daycare |
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Recommended Standards for Child CareCenters |
Child-to-caregiver ratio: - 3:1 for children aged 6 to 15 months - 4:1 for 2-year-olds; - 7:1 for 3-year-olds • Formal training for caregivers in child development, early childhoodeducation, or a related field. • Environment is safe, healthy, and stimulating • Supports physical, emotional, intellectual, & social development |
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Family policies: Cross-cultural comparison Italy and Sweden |
Parental leave - Italy: 8 weeks prior to birth and 12 weeks after the birth with 80% of payment. - Sweden: eighteen months off work, 80% ofpayment for 12 months. |
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Family policies: Cross- cultural comparison US |
Women has to meet certain conditions: - must be employed by a company with 50+ employees - must have worked 1,250 hours in the previous year. Parental leave: - 12-week’ job-protected unpaid leave - An important caveat: a company is not required to holdthe same job the employee held before the leave, only ajob |
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Family policies: Cross- cultural comparison Canada |
Canada: Certain conditions have to be met - 600 hours in the last 52 weeks - Employment Insurance (EI) gives paid maternity leave for50 weeks China:- 90 days + 15 days (late pregnancy) + 35 days (only child) |
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Peers |
two or more personswho are operating at similarlevels of behavioral complexity.
- Peers as agents of socialization - Social equals |
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Development in play activities (6 months to 1.5 years) |
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Development in play activities (1.5 months to 4 years) |
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Social Competence |
- group skills - positive social affect - social-cognitive skills - emotional "intelligence" |
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Functions of Friends |
- emotional support and security - a buffer against unpleasant experiences -reciprocated best friendship: a friendship in which two children view each other as best or close friends |
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Factors in Children's Choice of Friends |
- proximity - age - sex - race - interests and behaviours: after age 7 |
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Pros and Cons of Friendship |
People having a reciprocated best friend in preadolescence: - less likely to be victimized by peers - doing better in college, family, and in their social life - higher self-worth and less psychopathology - research are correlational Problematic behaviors of friends: - antisocial, aggressive - alcohol and drug abuse |
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Culture and Peer Experience |
Young children’s contactwith unrelated peers variesconsiderably around theworld |
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Sociometric status: |
a measure of peer status, the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group High (+) or Low (-) on knowledge of the child High (+) or Low (-) on acceptance/liking |
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Common Sociometric Categories |
Popular = Receive highest peer ratings; often skilled atcompromising and negotiating Average = average positive or negative ratings Rejected = Actively disliked by peers; often aggressive and inconflict with peers, although some shy Neglected = Ignored by peers Controversial = They are noticed by peers and are liked by a quite a fewchildren and disliked by quite a few others. |
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Bullies and Victims |
Bullies: aggressive without provocation; highsocial skills used antisocially Victimized children: Not rejected bywhole group, but actively harmed by asmall minority - Typically immature social skills |
