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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social Psychology
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study of individual beh in social contexts
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Social Psychology
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study of individual beh in social contexts
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intergroup relations
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any aspect of human interaction that involves individuals perceiving themselves as members of a social category. or being perceived by others as a social category
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Why do we need more international studies?
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Because of cultural differences. (Right now based on North America which is v individualistic
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What dilemmas do we face in IG? (7)
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1-most research based on individual or intra-individual processes. 2-social psychologists don't focus on identification.3-problem understand the relationship btw cognitive and emotional states to behaviour.4-focus on cognitive rather than emotions5-treatment of individuals by theories of intergroup6-how theory deals with power in advantaged/disadvantaged groups7-relationship among all other theories
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Risky shift
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apparent tendency for people to take riskier decisions when acting as a group member
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deindividualization
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tendency for a group to release responsibility of individuals
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Freud on groups
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-only interested in groups with leaders-viewed group as a revival of primal horde (collection of ind. ruled by powerful male)
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Freud on identification
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-identification = earliest form of emotional tie with object/person-identification = process by which ind. who develops emotional tie behaves as if they were the person with whom tie exists-identification = essential link btw leaders and followers-the more important the common quality. the more important the tie
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primary group
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Freud; number of ind. who have put one same object in place of their ego ideal
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Freud on libido
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energy of those instincts that have to do with all that may be comprised under "love"
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Social Psychology
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study of individual beh in social contexts
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intergroup relations
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any aspect of human interaction that involves individuals perceiving themselves as members of a social category. or being perceived by others as a social category
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Why do we need more international studies?
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Because of cultural differences. (Right now based on North America which is v individualistic
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What dilemmas do we face in IG? (7)
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1-most research based on individual or intra-individual processes. 2-social psychologists don't focus on identification.3-problem understand the relationship btw cognitive and emotional states to behaviour.4-focus on cognitive rather than emotions5-treatment of individuals by theories of intergroup6-how theory deals with power in advantaged/disadvantaged groups7-relationship among all other theories
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Risky shift
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apparent tendency for people to take riskier decisions when acting as a group member
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deindividualization
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tendency for a group to release responsibility of individuals
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Freud on groups
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-only interested in groups with leaders-viewed group as a revival of primal horde (collection of ind. ruled by powerful male)
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Freud on identification
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-identification = earliest form of emotional tie with object/person-identification = process by which ind. who develops emotional tie behaves as if they were the person with whom tie exists-identification = essential link btw leaders and followers-the more important the common quality. the more important the tie
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primary group
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Freud; number of ind. who have put one same object in place of their ego ideal
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Freud on libido
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energy of those instincts that have to do with all that may be comprised under "love"
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According to Freud. what is the most important factor binding group members together?
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love
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Freud on Christ
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"substitute father"all believer share same love for their leader and each perosn tied with libidinal ties to leader
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Freud on the Army
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individuals listen to commands of officers. lose their freedom by joining a group
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what leads to conformity/tendency to obey according to Freud?
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joininga group because it initiates and strengthens feeling of belonging. dependence. and responsibilities.
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What happens when a leader disappears?
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if the follower-leader bond is terminated. follower-follower bonds also disappear; panic occurs too
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Explain psychological ambivalence.
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Freud says libidinal ties involve love and hate -- each intimate relationship involves a mixture of aversion/hostility and love. As an ind. you just repress it. but in a group it's often directed to outgroup.
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What is it called when in-group hositility is directed outwards to out-groups and minorities?Give an example.
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Displaced Aggression. Example: terrorism (too weak to show aggression towards real problem. government. so displaces it onto public)
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What are the 3 changes an ind. goes through when joining a group?
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1. psychological2. loss for individual due to psychological changes (particularly in terms of intellectual abilities)3. regaining what they lost by joining the group
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Explain Freud's model of group psychology.
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1. assumed basis for intergroup hostility2. model of intergroup relations adopted3. out-group selected as target for aggression4. subgroups that should be focus of study within each group.
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Out-group hostility according to Freud is...
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based on displaced aggression and psychological ambivalence.necessary for harmony in in-group (because if they don't attack others. they'll start attacking each other)
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What is the model proposed by Freud called and what did it eventually inspire? By who?
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"Hydraulic model": if gorups can't attain goals. they will put displaced aggression on out-group.Dollard got inspired and created Frustration Aggression Model.
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What did Adorno bring to intergroup relations?
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The authoritarian personality. He used Freud's models of personality. believed that personalities could be a threat -- fascists.
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Explain an authoritarian personality according to Adorno.
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People who suppressed their hostilities towards their parents. projecting this aggression onto scapegoat out-groups like Jews and Blacks.
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What's an irrational shield? Who proposed this as a part of what?
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Adorno proposed irrational shield as part of authoritarian personality type who grows this to protect itself from "unacceptable" realities of life.
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What are the 9 traits of an authoritarian personality? (Adorno)
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submissiveness. conventialism. aggressiveness. concern with power and toughness. reliance on superstitions and stereotypes. preoccupation with sex. projection of own undesirable traits onto others. lack of introspection. destructiveness and cynicism.
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RWA Scale -- what is it and who invented it?
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Altemeyer. Right-wing authoritarian scale. New scale of authoritarianism. found that only submissiveness. conventionalism. and aggressiveness were relevant traits. People high on this scale are more prone to support gov. crackdown on minority groups
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Realistic Conflict Theory (explain it!)
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whenever there are two or more groups that are seeking the same limited resources. this will lead to conflict. nefative sterotypes and beliefs. and discrimination btw the groups
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Who is most important psychologist related to RCT?
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Sherif
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Definition of group according to Sherif
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a social unit that consists of a number of individuals who1) at any give time have a role and status relations btw each other. stablized to a degree2) possess a set of values and norms regulating the attitue and beh of ind members. at least in manners of consequence to them.
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intergroup relations according to Sherif
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relations btw 2 or more groups and their members
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Stages of Sherif's experiments
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1) spontaneous interpersonal friendship choices2) group formation3) intergroup conflict4) intergroup cooperation/reduction of conflict
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Explain the Robber's Cave (who did it? what was it?)
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- 22 white 5th grade 11 year old boys with average to good school performance and above average intelligence with a protestant two parent background were put in summer camp.- purpose: to be removed from external factors.- divided into 2 groups -- assigned to cabins far from each other. did not know each other existed.- 4 days of competition after bonding with prizes to win. - they got really aggressive and had to be asked to cool down for 2 days. When asked about the other group. the in-group would rate their group higher and the out-group very low- Trying to reduce conflict by putting groups together made it worse.
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What is a superordinate goal? Who introduced this and when?
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- two groups working towards common goal that have positives for each group but cannot be achieved alone.- Sherif -- did it with the boys at the camp by breaking water supply. Van breaking down. Etc.- if the common goal failed though. this would INCREASE hostility towards out-group (blame them)
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Superordinate can be applied to real world. How?
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1. Industrial conflicts -- 2. International conflicts -- 3. Desegregated schools -- Aronson's experiment called Jigsaw Classroom
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What's the Jigsaw Classroom an example of?
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How to use superordinate goals to desegregate schools. Aronson made kids of diff race work together in small groups to achieve goal. Only possible if everyone helped.
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What is Deutsch known for?
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Gaming research. Specifically peace research.
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What is a War Gamer
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gaming researcher who adopt the goal of making warfare as efficient as possible.
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What is gaming research?
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model of humankind as rational. thinking being who is motivated to maximize personal gains.
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What is cooperation theory? Who invented it?
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Axelrod. Based on assumption that competition for scarce resources determines nature of intergroup relations and that cooperation is a trait passed down in offspring.Part of gaming theory
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What kind of approach does cooperation theory involve?
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Darwinian and Evolutionary
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Explain the Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG)
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Explains why two people might not cooperate (despite being rational peeps) even if it is in their best interests. There are many variations but...- If A and B both betray each other. each of them go to jail for 2 years.- If A betrays B but B remains silent. A is free but B does 3 years. (and vice versa)- If A and B both remain silent. both of them will only serve 1 year.The game is mixed motive. non-zero-sum game with a saddle point.
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What's the minimax principle?
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the rationale that logical players will minimize loss and maximize reward
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How can PDG be applied to real life?
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Arms -- one nation wants to up their arms or cooperate.
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What are Eiser and Bhavnani known for?
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PDG experiment: it should be possible to influence subjects' behaviour based on altering how they perceive the requirements of the task in the PDG. 4 conditions:- control (run according to standard PDG)- subjects were told their behavior was supposed to be interpreted in the context of international negotations or economic bargaining or interpersonal interactions. respectively.- 80 subjects (40 M. 40 F)- Results: economic or control groups = competitive. international + interpersonal = more likely to cooperate.
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Who did the experiment in gaming research with communication?
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Morley and stephenson
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What was Morley and Stephenson's experiment on communication in gaming research?
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Found that the more opportunity for personal characteristics of the negotiators to enter the situation. the less outcomes depend on the actual strength of the case.
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What are the strengths of RCT?
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- intergroup oriented- makes logical sense and conforms to our everyday understanding about why there might be conflict btw two groups
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What are the weaknesses of RCT (7)?
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- comparing games to national scale -- relevant?- assumption that all conflict is bad (maybe not true -- gay activists? minorities? disadvantaged groups?)- psychological implications of RCT have yet to be explored. - subjects are often undergraduate people -- generalizable??- Sherif's findings don't represent how you can choose to LEAVE a group in real life. Would have been better.- power issues are ignored -- exclusively equal power groups.- emphasis on psychological solutions to material problems -- source of conflict ignored
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Explain Social Identity Theory.
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a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership. First coined by Tajfel and Turner.
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What is the motivation of someone according to SIT?
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Individuals strive to achieve a positive social identity.
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What is a positive social identity according to SIT?
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the part of ind.'s self-concept that derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group + the value and emotional significance attached to that emmbership.
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What is European social psychology focused on compared to North American (according to SIT)?
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European: concerned with change and conflict at the itnergroup levelNorth American: concerned with change and conflict at the ind. level; neglect of competition and conflict at the level of groups.
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What are the four central concepts to SIT?
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1. social categorization2. social identity3. social comparison4. psychological gorup distinctivenes
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What does it mean when you simplify the environment around you and act only on what is readily available to you (SIT)?
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Categorization of nonsocial stimuli
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What does the categorization of nonsocial stimuli lead to
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perceived uniformity within individual categories and distinctiveness between them
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Tajfel and Wilkes did a study on nonsocial stimuli. explain it!
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subjects ared to estimate length of a line -- 3 conditions: four shorter lines were labeled A. and the four longer ones B. The lines were randome assigned. And the lines were presented without labels. Results: condition 1 exaggerated the differences btw A and B (more than condition 2 or 3). And they grouped together the categories saying most As were more similar and Bs too.
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What does the study on nonsocial stimuli by Tajfel and Wilkes show?
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that people might categorize based on values (like race. prejudices. etc.)
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Pettigrew (SIT) study:
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people categorized images of faces into races. Afrikaaners chose more extreme categorizations because racists. -- our prejudices affect our categorization.
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Minimal Group Experiments -- what are they for?
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They're designed to isolate social categorization as an independent variable andmeasure its influence on intergroup behaviour.
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Explain what a minimal group experiment entails.
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1. Social categorization takes place ona trivial criterion and unidentified others are placed either in same cat. as subject or a diff one.2. Subjects allocate rewards to these others (some in same cat as them).There's no face to face and it's anonymous.
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Give example of a minimal group experiment.
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British boys 14-15 (64) were split into groups based on how accurately they perceive dots. when asked to reward in or out group. they almost always chose in. similar experiment. but subjects could reward themselves only. or in the third condition they could reward their ingroup. They always favoured themselves. and if forced to do it as a gorup. their ingroup.
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What's vitality in SIT context?
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that which makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and active collective entityshaped by 3 factors:1. demography. 2. institutional support/control 3. status
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What is group power according to Bourhis and Sachdev
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degree of control a group has over its own fate
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What is the hierarchy of discrimination in group power experiments by Bourhis and Sachdev?
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high power --> absolute power --> low power --> no power
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What is an example of gorup power dynamics in real lifE?
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WASPS -- the highest class WASPs were liberal towards lower classes. whereas lower class WASPs were not. Felt threatened.
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Misidentification (SIT)
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subjects defining their group membership in a way that does not correspond to reality of the situation (with the aim of being part of high status group) --> i.e. black kids placing higher valeu to white out-group
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Why do people want change according to SIT?
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desired by ind whose group membership provides them with inadequate and negative social identity.
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What is intergroup differentiation?
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the desire to separate group identity from other groups
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What is necessary for social change (SIT)?
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Cognitive alternatives
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What is necessary for cognitive alternatives? (SIT)
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two factors: perceived legitimacy of group and stability/instability
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Limitations of SIT (5)
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1. does not identify priorities of ind inside group -- mostly adopt for ind rather than group strategies for improving their position in society.2. self esteem = motive for and conseuqence of in group favouritism. 3. role of emotions is neglected4. gender difference neglected5. social categorization = all or none. Not true. More of a dynamic process.
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Influences of SIT (3 major)
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1. Self-Categorization theory (Turner): cognitive theory of ind beh within group contexts. Shift towards the perception of slef as an interchangeable exemplay or some social category2. Norm-Violation Model: attempts to see social beh through normative models3. Brewer's Optimal Distinctiveness Theory: ind look for balance btw assimiliation and differentiation.
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Equity Theory. explain it!
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People strive for justice in their relationships and feel distressed when they perceive an injustice. They define justice on the basis of inputs and outcomes for tose incolced in a relationship.Assumes that people move forward along rational paths to arrive at a definition of justice. but does not assume that the notion of justice achieved necessarily corresponds with reality.Answers questions of: what do people think is fair? How do they respond when they feel like they're getting less/more than they deserve?
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Inputs (equity theory ET)
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contributions that people make in the form of attributes. abilities. efforts
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Outcomes (ET)
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rewards/punishments that may be tangible or intangible (pay. services vs status. liking)
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What is the ratio formula for ET?
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inputs by person(or group) X/ Outcomes for person(or group) X = Inputs by person (or group) Y/outcomes by person or group Y
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What is Walster's formula?
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Ox-Ix/Ix=Oy-Iy/Iy (takes into account negative inputs too)
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What are the two ways proposed to restore equity in ET?
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1. actual restoration of equity by changing inputs and outcomes of one or both parties so that it's equal2. psychological restoration of equity by distorting the reality of output/input. (just believe!!)
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What is the difference btw ET and other psychological theories?
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Equity theory does not subscribe to idea that ppl are self serving. but thinks they strive for equality above all.
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Explain the tragedy of the commons.
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Proposed by Hardin. Sampson references it. Basically commons is pasture where everyone can let animals graze. but it is ruined when trying to maximize ind. gains (everyone loses if someone add an animal to higher personal gains)
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What two important traditions does ET integrate?
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behaviouristic notions of social exchange and motivation for cognitive balance
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Austin and Walster Experiment on inequity and rewards:
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People who receive equitable rewards will be less distracted than people who receive ineqitable rewards (under rewarded or over rewarded)ALSO when people are treated inequitably. they will experience less distress if they expected it than if they didn't. Expectations decrease stress.Disadvantaged groups will accept inequity more than others though.
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What are advantaged groups more likely to use?
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Psychological restoration (they distort the reality rather than actually change the inputs and outputs)
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What's Ryan's racism approach to equity?
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White people psychologically restore inequity with black people by devaluing inputs of disadvantaged group.
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Donnerstein's study on White/Black.
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Subjects were white people who feared black peopleWhite subjects were in two conditions: shock black epople anonymously, or known.Higher level of shocks when anonymous.
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How do disadvantaged groups come to psychological restoration?
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1. disadvantaged group needs it because they can't change the reality2. they do it cos it benefits them
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What is the Exit Option (ET)
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When no realistic hope fo restoring -- use the exit option liek QC wants to seperate from canada
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Valenzi and Andrews study on Exit option
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clerks hired for 6 weeks at same hourly rate. On second day, clerks were given new pay structure to promote inequity. None of the overpaid or equity paid lef tthe job, but 27% of underpaid did.
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Schmitt and Marwell study on Exit option
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They gave workers a choice: ether work in a group and be paid inequitably or work alone but paid a lot less. Many opted to work alone because of group stress.
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DeCarufel and Schopler on Overcompensation
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Initially everyone equitable paid, then divided into overpaid and equitably paid. Overpaid people were actually less happy.
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Affirmative Action
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the policy of favouring members of a disadvantaged group who are perceived to suffer from discrimination within a culture
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Soft vs Hard Affirmative Action (what's the difference?)
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Soft: based on individual merit ex:equal opportunity for womenhard: reverse discrimination -- preferential treatment for women
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Do women want soft or hard affirmative action?
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women prefer soft and reject hard
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Averive racism what is it?
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negative evaluations of racial and athnic minorities realized by persiisten avoidance of interaction with other racial groups
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What is the imposter syndrome?
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psychological phenomenon in which people ar eunable to internalize their accomplishments. (woman who thinks she's hired for her gender reports low satisfaction/commitment/high stress
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Gender differences in ET?
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Boys tend to follow equity -- put more in, get more outgirls tend to do equal -- everyone gets the same
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Limitations of ET (3)
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culturally biased (based on North American values), vague about social comparison process, equity theory is not specific about inputs and outputs
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Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT)
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By Stouffer et al. Person's relative status that determines his or her sense of satisfaciton, not the objective situation
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RDT study on American Soldiers
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More complaints in airforce than military. Most men in air force got promoted whereas no one in military did. So the airforce peeps felt deprived.
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Problems with RDT
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nt possible to make specific predictions about feelings when using this theory, and it fails to specify its operation at ind. and group level
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What are the two components of RDT?
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Cognitive component (perceived difference), and Emotional component (feelings of anger, outrage, grievance)
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Who else did RDT? Other than Stouffer?
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Crosby -- but more at individual level
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What are the five preconditions of RDT by Crosby?
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Person sees X, person wants X, person feels entitled to X, feels like they could have X, doesn't blame self for not having X.
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RDT according to Davis
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Person doesn't have X, Person wants X, Feels entitled to X.
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Runciman's RDT
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Like Davis (3) but adds feasibility
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Gurr on RDT
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Thinks that people who feel it's not feasible to obtain X get grievance.
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Frustration Aggression on RDT
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When you're frustrated, instead of taking it out on the thing you're frustrated about, you displace that and take it out on someone else. Includes want of x and feasibility.
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ET on RDT
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involves social comparison and entitlement. Seeing that the person wants X, entitled, and does not feel responsible for lack of X
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Crosby study on uni students
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The study showed support for Gurr, and actually disproved the last part of Crosby -- people were felt most deprived when blaming self.
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Women and Work Study RDT
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Nothing came out of this. Crosby had to rethink her model lol
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Crosby's revision on RDT
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Two preconditions for RDT -- a discrepancy btw actual and wanted outcomes/a discrepancy btw actual and deserved outcomes.
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Egoistical deprivaiton
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ind feels deprived cos of his or her position within group
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Fraternal deprivation
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dissatisfaction because of a person's group status vis-avis other groups
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Pettigrew on RDT
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Fraternal deprivation = most likely to not vote for black candidates (white). Egoistical deprivation were more likely to vote for black candidates.
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What is Resource Mobilization Theory?
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stresses ability to move members to 1. acquire resources and 2. mobilize people towards accomplishing the movement's goals.
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Three important limitations of RDT
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1. restricted range of emotions expected (anger, frustration and outrage) -- incomplete, emphasis on ind. 2. beh is not operationalized. 3. tendency to investigate only one form of beh
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Major on Gender Segregation?
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Women more likely to make intragroup more than intergroup comparisons.
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What are the motivations for Social Comparison?
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- reality testing, gorup enhancement, and equity appeal
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Five Stage Model of Intergroup Relations
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Taylor and McKirnan; all societies composed of elite and non-elites. When groups are open, talented move up and non talented move down. When groups are closed -- talented non elite work to overthrow elite.
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What are the 5 stages of FSM
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1. clearly stratified intergroup relations, 2. individualistic ideology, 3. individual social mobility, 4. consciousness raising, 5. collective action
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What links the stages together?
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process of causal attribution (ind. and group) and social comparison (ind and group)
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Stage 1 of FSM
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Clearly stratified intergroup relations. Clear distinction btw advantaged and disadvantaged group. Social norm. Not questioned. Closed groups.
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Stage 2 of FSM
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Emerging individualistic ideology. Open groups. Stratification on basis of achievement. Open groups. Basically individual effort and ability determien status.
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Stage 3 of FSM
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Individual social mobility. Attempt of disadvantaged to "pass" as advantagef group member.
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Stage 4 of FSM
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Consciousness raising. Disadvantaged people who succeed in getting to advantaged -- think it was cos of their abilities or because the system isn't corrupt. (just) Those who don't succeed become consciousness raisers -- they attempt to convince everyone else that it's unfair.
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Stage 5 of FSM
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Collective Action. 3 ways to do it: 1. collective competition (against advantaged group) 2. Redefinition (negative aspects of disadvantaged become positive) 3. Social Originality: creation of new dimensions for comparison btw them and outgroup.
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Tokenism
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Structural reality envountered by members of disadvantaged groups. Social strategy where some members of disadvantaged group are promoted, but rest are systematically blocked. Subtle form of discrimination.
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Wright on FSM (Behavioural Framework)
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involves the categorization of beg of disadvantaged groups into two dimensions: the extent of individualism of beh and exten to which the beh is normative from advantaged perspective.
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What are the 5 categories of behaviour in Wright's Behavioural Framework?
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Acceptance, Upward mobility, Individual action, Collective action (within norms), Collective action (outside norms)
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Experiment (Wright) on performances in FSM
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Conditions were meritocracy, partially closed, closed, and tokenism. Only closed brought on anti normative collective action. The rest just stuck with status quo.
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Is tokenism effective?
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According to wright, yes. Because it makes people just take ind. action instead of collective action.
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Why does tokenism work?
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Cos token people feel they earned their position in high group so support the status quo.
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Advantages of FSM
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realistic, macro and micro level processes are encompassed, intergroup in historical context, can eb tested through experimental social psych.
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Problems with FSM
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impossible to know what stage a group is at at any given time, stages 2-5 revolved around validity of ideology based on achieved characeristics, does not deal with reactions of advantaged groups, non falsifiable (like ET) -- predicitons are hard to make. does not discuss in detail the transitions btw groups.
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What level of analysis is RCT?
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macro, doesn't deal with psychological processes
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What level of analysis is Freud's theory and ET?
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reductioning, micro.
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What level of abalysis is SIT and FSM?
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Both macro and micro (at least attempt to be)
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