Chapter Four Developmental And Learning Theories

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Theory

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A group of general principles, ideas, or proposed explanations for explaining some kind of phenomenon; in this case, child development.

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Hypothesis

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A tentative theory or assumption made to draw inferences or test conclusions; an interpretation of a practical situation that is then taken as the ground for action.

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Nature/Nurture Controversy

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The argument regarding human development that centers around two opposing viewpoints; nature refers to the belief that it is the person’s genetic, inherent character that determines development; nurture applies to the notion that it is the sum total of experiences and the environment that determine development.

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Psychodynamic Theory

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The Psychological theory of Dr. Sigmund Freud and others; it asserts that the individual develops a basic personality core in childhood and that responses stem from personality organization and emotional problems as a result of environmental experiences.

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Unconscious

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Not conscious, without awareness, occurring below the level of conscious thought.

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Psychosocial

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Those psychological issues that deal with how people relate to others and the problems that arise on a social level; a modification by Erikson of the psychodynamic theories of Freud with attention to social and environmental problems of life.

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Autonomy

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The state of being able to exist and operate independently, of being self-sufficient rather than dependent on others.

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Stimulus-Response

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The kind of psychological learning, first characterized in behavior theory, that makes a connection between a response and a stimulus; that is, the kind of learning that takes place when pairing something that rouses or incites an activity with the activity itself in such a way that the stimulus (such as a bell) will trigger a response (such as salivating).

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Reinforcement

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A procedure, such as reward or punishment, that changes a response to a stimulus; the act of encouraging a behavior to increase in frequency.

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Socialization

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The process of learning the skills, appropriate behaviors and expectations of being part of a group, particularly society at large.

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Modeling

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A part of behavior theory, modeling is a way of learning social behavior that involves observing a model (either real, filmed or animated) and mimicking its behavior, thus acquiring new behavior.

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Self-efficacy

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The feelings or thoughts about how competent a person perceives him/herself to be.

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Observational Learning

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Any acquired skills or knowledge having to do with interacting with others; in Bandura’s Social Learning theory, observational learning occurs when children watch other people directly or in film and imitate what they have seen in the model.

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Classical Conditioning

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The most common and basic category of learning in behaviorist theory, involving an association between a stimulus and a response so that a reflex response (eye blinking, salivating, etc.) occurs whenever a neutral and new stimulus is activated (a bell for light, food, etc.); a conditioned response experiment conforms to the pattern of Pavlov’s experiment, sometimes known as “stimulus substitution”.

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Operant Conditioning

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A category of learning in behavior theory that involves a relation between a stimulus and a response. The response is learned, rather than reflexive and is gradually and carefully developed through reinforcement of the desired behavior as it occurs in response to the stimulus; behavior learning to a reward.

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Reinforcers

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Rewards in response to a specific behavior, thus increasing the likelihood that behavior will recur; reinforcers may be either social (praise) or nonsocial (food) in nature and may or may not be deliberately controlled.

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Punishment

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The act of inflicting a penalty for an offense or behavior.

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Assimilation

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A concept in Piaget’s cognitive theory as one of two processes people use to learn and incorporate new information; the persona takes new information and puts it together with what is already known in order to assimilate the new information intellectually, such as when a toddler shakes a toy magnet first, as with all other toys in order to get to know this new object. Children usually first try to put new experiences into the “schema” or categories, they already know and use.

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Accommodation

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A concept in Piaget’s cognitive theory as one of two processes people use to learn and incorporate new information; the person adjusts what is already known to “accommodate” new learning. Children usually will change their way of thinking into a “schema” once they see that their usual ways do not take new information into account; they then will add new thought patterns to handle the new knowledge.

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Equilibrium

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To balance equally; in Piaget’s theory, the thinking process by which a person ‘”makes sense” and puts into balance new information with what is already known.

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Schema

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A plan, scheme, or framework that helps make an organizational pattern from which to operate; in Piaget’s theory, cognitive schemas are used for thinking.

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Myelination

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The forming of the myelin sheath, the material in the membrane of certain cells in the brain; the development of the myelination of the brain seems to parallel Piagetian stages of cognitive development.

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Transmission Model

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A model of education describing the transference of information directly from one person to another, such as in the sense of passing on knowledge directly from teacher to child.

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Constructivism

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: A theory of learning developed from the principles of children’s thinking by Piaget and implemented in programs as those in Reggio Emilia, Italy, which states that individuals learn through adaptation. The “constructivist” model of learning posits that children are not passive receptacles into which knowledge is poured but rather are active at making meaning, testing out theories, and trying to make sense of the world and themselves. Knowledge is subjective as each person creates personal meaning out of experiences and integrates new ideas into existing knowledge structures.

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Transactional Model

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A model of education that describes the interaction of an individual with one or more persons, especially as influenced by their assumed roles. This model implies that the role of parent, child or teacher has an effect on what and how information is taught and learned.

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Egocentric

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Self-centered; regarding the self as the center of all things; in Piaget’s theory, young children think using themselves as the center of the universe or as the entire universe.

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Sociocultural

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Aspects of theory or development that refer to the social and cultural issues; key descriptor of Vygotsky’s theory of development.

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Zone of Proximal Development

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The term in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory that defines which children can learn. Interpersonal and dynamic, the zone refers to the area a child can master (skill, information, etc.) with the assistance of another skilled person; below that, children can learn on their own; above the limit are areas beyond the child’s capacity to learn, even with help.

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Scaffolding

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A useful structure to support a child in learning. A child who gets advice or hints to help master an activity is said to have scaffolding learning, a term Vygotsky used.

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Private (inner) Speech

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The language children use for self-guidance and self-direction, as well as for helping them think about their behavior and plan for action; once known as “egocentric speech”, it is used for self-regulation.

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Bicognitive Development

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A term coined by Ramirez and Casteneda to describe a set of experiences and environments that promote children’s ability to use more than one mode of thinking or linguistic system. Each of us grows up with a preferred cognitive style, such as global or analytic, field dependent or field independent, seeing the parts vs. seeing the whole, as well as a linguistic style. For true cultural democracy to take place, we need to develop a flexibility to switch learning styles or cognitive modes (i.e., develop bicognitive abilities) and have an awareness of and respect for differing cognitive styles.

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Multiple Intelligences

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A theory of intelligences, proposed by Howard Gardner, that outlines several different kinds of intelligences, rather than the notion of intelligence as measured by standardized testing, such as the IQ.

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Maturation Theory

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A set of ideas based on the notion that the sequence of behavior and the emergence of personal characteristics develop more through predetermined growth processes than through learning and interaction with the environment; the theory of growth and development proposed and supported by Dr. Arnold Gesell and associates.

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Self-Actualization

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The set of principles set forth by Abraham Maslow for a person’s wellness or ability to be the most that a person can be; the state of being that results from having met all the basic and growth needs.

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Basic Needs (Deficiency Needs)

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Conditions, described by Abraham Maslow and other humanists, that are necessary for growth; these needs, such as physiologic conditions and safety and security, are critical for a person’s survival.

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Growth Needs

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Conditions, as described by Abraham Maslow and other humanists, that are important to a person’s well-being; these needs, such as love and belonging, self-esteem and respect for others, playfulness, truth, beauty, etc., while are not critical to a person’s survival, are necessary for growth.

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Attachment

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The relational bond that connects a child to another important person; feelings and behaviors of devotion or positive connection.

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Superhero

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Those characters who embody a higher nature and powers beyond ordinary human abilities such as Superman, Wonder Woman, etc.

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Sociodramatic Play

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At least two children participating in dramatic play or play that involves two basic elements; imitation and make-believe.

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Sex Differences

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The biological differences between males and females.

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Gender Differences

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A distinction of characteristics, behaviors, or attitudes typically associated as being either male or female such that the differences are attributed with the sex that a person identifies with.

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Gender Identity

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The characteristics determining who or what a persona is; in this case, those social and cultural differences around being male and female.

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Gender Role

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The function or part played by a person according to the social and cultural expectations of being male and female.

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Prosocial

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Behaviors that are considered positive and social in nature, such as sharing, inviting, including, and offering help or friendship.

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Dendrites

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Branches of brain cells that reach out to make connections with other cells.

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Cortisol

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Hormone released when the brain perceives a threat or stress.