Chapter 9 First Two Approaches

Front 1

What does observation essentially involve ?

Back 1

-systematic viewing

-recording

-description

-analysis and interpretation of people´s behaviour

Front 2

Traditional approaches to observation 2

Back 2

1. Participant observation

2. structured observation

Front 3

Two technological-mediated approaches

Back 3

1.Internet-mediated observation

2.observation using videography

Front 4

In what way do the technology-mediated forms affect the nature of collecting data

Back 4

As it makes it possible for researchers to apply observational techniques not only to primary data but also to secondary data

Front 5

In different research approaches as what is a respondent and a participant normally defined

Back 5

-respondent: complete a questionnaire

-participant: agrees to take part in most forms of the qualitative research

Front 6

How are those roles in observational research ?

Back 6

researcher = participant in the surrounding of other people

informants = those who agree to be observed

Front 7

What is the participant observation ?

Back 7

It is a qualitative methods that puts emphasize on discovering the meanings that people attach to their actions

Front 8

What is the aim of the researcher ?3

Back 8

-fully participate in the lives and activities of subjects and becomes a member of their group/organization/community

-researcher experiences what is happening by feeling it instead of simply observing -> more effective because researcher knows the context

- due to the fact that researcher is part of the group he understands the symbolic world better and thus also the informants

Front 9

In which kind of research is this technique mostly used ?

Back 9

-ethnography-research

Front 10

What is the symbolic frame of reference in this case ? 3

Back 10

-symbolic interactionism

-individual derives a sense of identity from interaction and communication with others

-people continually change when the social circumstances they find themselves change

Front 11

4 different forms of participant observation 6 two different dimensions

Back 11

1.Complete participant

2.Complete observer

3.Observer as participant

4.Participant as observer

Front 12

Explain the Complete participant

Back 12

-researcher becomes member of the observed group without revealing his identity

-ethical concerns because he spies on informants

-only conduct this when there is no risk of breaking trust / creating harm to anyone

Front 13

Explain the Complete Observer 3

Back 13

-does not reveal the reason to become part of the group

-but also does nor take part in the activities

-e.g. research studies about consumer behaviour in supermarkets

Front 14

Explain the Observer-as-participant 3

Back 14

-considered a spectator

-reveals researcher´s identity and the reasons for the observation

-watches the activities happening -> full concentration on research role

Front 15

Explain participant-as-observer 3

Back 15

-reveals the researchers identity

-wants to gain the trust of the group

-pro is that informants are likely to provide a perspective of analytic reflection on the processes in which they are involved

Front 16

Factors that will determine the choice of participant observer role

Back 16

1.The purpose of the research

2.Your status

3.The time you have to devote to your research

4.The degree to which you feel suited to participant observation

5.Organisational access

6.Ethical considerations

Front 17

How can the purpose of the research help me choosing the participant observation role ? Give examples

Back 17

You should always be guided by the appropriateness of the method for your research question and objectives.

-e.g. in a research where the informants would rather be defensive - the researcher might step into the complete participant role

Front 18

What impact has the researchers status and time on the choice ?

Back 18

-Time-frame of the research

-working full-or part time

-participant-observation = very time-consuming

Front 19

How can the degree of suitability to participant observation influence the choice ?

Back 19

-not everyone feels suited for observational research

-one must build relationships with others

-personal flexibility is needed

-own personality must be suppressed to a greater extent

-how well the researcher can gain access to organizational data is also an issue

Front 20

How do ethical considerations determine which type of observation one should take ?

Back 20

-complete participant might raise some ethical questions while the participant-as-observer reveals clear the objectives of the research and does not hide anything

Front 21

What is important about the Data collection ?

Back 21

Data collection and analysis has to be carried out simultaneously

Front 22

Explain the note making and recording data step & name the 4 different types of data generated by participant observation

Back 22

-making notes is essential in observation-based studies

1.Primary observations

2.Secondary Observations

3.Experiental data

4.Contextual Data

Front 23

What are Primary observations ?

Back 23

Those data were you would note what happened or what was said at the time -> keeping a diary is a good way of doing this

Front 24

What are secondary observations ?

Back 24

Statements by observers of what happened or was said -> necessarily involves observers` interpretations

Front 25

What is experiential data ? 3

Back 25

Data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are researching

->keeping a diary proves a valuable source of data

-> may include notes on how you feel that your values have intervened, or changes over the research process

Front 26

What is contextual data ?

Back 26

additional data that is collected through primary and secondary observations and is more related to the research setting and the data collection process

Front 27

Explain the term of "Progressing data collection"and who outlines this process ?

Back 27

Robson outlines the process where the researcher has to go through different phases while doing primary observation

Front 28

Name the 3 phases of this process

Back 28

1.descriptive observation

2.narrative account

3.focused observation

Front 29

What is the descriptive observation ?

Back 29

researcher concentrates on observing the physical setting, the key informants and their activities, particular events and their procedure, and the attendant processes and emotions involved

Front 30

What is the narrative account ?

Back 30

researcher interprets the events that convey meaning to the researcher ->develop a theory or framework that will help the researcher to understand and to explain to others what is going on in the research setting

Front 31

Why do you need a focused observation and what is it ?

Back 31

to meet the research objectives the researcher need to focus on particular events or interactions between informants

Front 32

What kind of interview is likely to be used for collecting data and name the 2 types of questions mostly used ?

Back 32

-informal discussion

1.Questions to informants to clarify the observed situations

2. Questions to oneself to clarify the situation and the accounts given of the situation

Front 33

What can be said about the data quality from participant observation ? Ecological validity ?

Back 33

As participant observation involves studying social actors and phenomena in their natural setting -> the research findings have mostly a high ecological validity because of their relevance to the situation.

Front 34

What are the three man threats to reliability/dependability and validity/credibility ?

Back 34

1.Observer error

2.Observer bias

3.Observer effect

Front 35

Explain the Observer error and the to it related observer drift ?

Back 35

Observer error = an unintentionally misinterpretation on what is happening due to a lack of understanding the setting

Observer drift= occurs when the researcher starts to redefine the way in which similar observations are interpreted -> inconsistency

Front 36

What is Observer bias and how can it be decreased ?

Back 36

1.happens when observer gives inaccurate responses in order to distort the results of the findings -> mostly based on subjective interpretations & hard to avoid

2. don`t rush through the interpretations & try to be objective -> covert/overt observation

Front 37

What is a covert and an overt observation ?

Back 37

1.Covert means not checking the interpretations with the informants

2. Overt means letting the informants read through some parts and ask them for their opinion = informant verification

Front 38

What is the observer effect ?
Name three possible solutions for that ?

Back 38

The impact that observing can have on people´s behavior -> may result in unreliable & invalid data

1.covert observation as a complete participant /complete observer

2.Minimal interaction - researcher tries to stay as much as possible in the background

3.Habituation - researcher in the role of participant-as-observer or observer-as-participant becomes familiar with informants and they take less notice of him

Front 39

What are the advantages of participant observation ? 5

Back 39

1.explains good "what is going on" in particular situations

2.heightens the researcher´s awareness of significant social processes

3.particularly useful for researchers working in their own org.

4.some p.o. provide the opportunity that the researcher experiences the emotions of the participants for real

5.Virtually all data collected are useful

Front 40

What are the disadvantages of participant observation ?

Back 40

1.very time consuming

2.pose difficult ethical dilemmas

3. high levels of role conflict for researcher ( colleague / researcher)

4.closeness of the researcher to the situation can lead to significant observer bias

5.participant observer role is very demanding -> not made for everyone

6. Access to org. might be difficult

7. Data recording is often very difficult

Front 41

What is Structured observation ? 4

Back 41

-quantifies behaviour

-emphasizes the frequency of specific actions rather than the meaning of these actions

-systematic & high level of predetermined structure

-often used additionally to other approaches because it only tells how often and not why smth. happens -> research may be sequential

Front 42

How was did approach changed by computer technologies ? give examples 4

Back 42

-computers facilitated this approach as they can record behaviour

-bonus cards

-work activities of workers in work centers

-internet : every time a website is visited -> recorded

Front 43

5 advantages of structured observation

Back 43

-anyone who is trained in the use of the measuring instrument can use it -> delegation and conduction at different locations at the same time are possible

-should be reliable because replicable - the easier the measurement instrument the more reliable are the findings

- can not only track the frequency of events but also a possible relationship between events (does the visit of one website lead to the visit of the next one)

-data can be collected at the time they occur in their natural setting

-secures data that most informants would ignore as the data seems too irrelevant to them

Front 44

6 disadvantages of structured observation

Back 44

-observer must be in research setting when phenomena take place

-observing behaviors, interactions and events simultaneously or in complex ways, makes coding difficult and may result in unreliable findings

-Inadequate for exploring the effectiveness of the behaviors, interactions or events being observed, researcher must make inferences -> limited to overt actions or surface indicators

-Without prior specifying/ developing theory -> observation is less valuable -> analysis needs to look for patterns of behavior to explain the collected data and to understand their impact in the observed situation

-Environmental variability withing a research setting should be recognized, as behaviour, interactions and events are shaped by its surroundings; otherwise it may invalidate conclusions that are drawn from the obs.

-Sometimes the data collection process is slow and expensive

Front 45

What can you say about data collection in terms of structured observation ?

Back 45

Using structured observation puts the researcher in a more detached stance and makes him the pure observer and not a participant

Front 46

What does Collecting data via coding schedules mean ? Give examples & further variations of coding schedules

Back 46

-Structured observation involves a coding schedule which is a check list with which the researcher can conduct his observations

1.checklist whether a category of behaviour has occurred -> staff member is analysed if he greats and smiles to customers etc.

2. checklist with more general categories -> record the frequencies of each category of behaviour -> effectiveness of a team meetings

3.further variations => recording behaviour, interactions and events as a sequence rather than as frequencies, by time intervals

- Before conducting structured observation researcher has to decide whether he takes an existing coding schedule that is in line with his research objectives or if he will design a new one -> can also be a mixture of existing and new

Front 47

What questions can be asked when developing a coding schedule ? 5

Back 47

1.Is the coding schedule suitable to answer the research question and objectives ?

2.Does the coding schedule cover all the relevant behaviours, interactions and events that are being observed ?

3.Are these categories of behaviour, interaction and events clearly defined and written down ?

4.Are the categories flexible enough that they can be applied in different settings of research ?

5. Are the codes being indicated on the sheet simple to understand so that it is easy to memorise their meanings ?

Front 48

Name the 4 main threats of structured observation

Back 48

1.Observer error

2.Observer effects

3.Informant error

4. Time error

Front 49

Explain the Informant error

Back 49

errors that occur when informants are observed in situations that are inconsistent with their normal behaviour pattern -> leads to atypical responses -> choose samples that are best representative of the population of the study

Ex. looking at effectiveness of employees when they are short-staffed due to illness

Front 50

Explain the time error

Back 50

occurs when the observation is conducted in a time when data is provided that is untypical for the time period in which the researcher is interested in -> conduct at different times

Ex. Researcher looks at output level when it is nearly lunch break -> energy-levels are lower