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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Back Propagation |
-The learning process occurs when the erroneous responses in the property units cause an error signal to be sent back through the network. (since the signals are being sent backward in the network starting from the property units. |
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Basic Level |
"for example table" -The second level of categories |
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Categorization |
The process by which things are placed in categories |
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Category |
Includes all possible ex of a particular concept |
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Category-specific memory impairment |
An impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects. |
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Cognitive Economy |
-Storing shared properties just once at a higher-level node |
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Concept |
The mental representation of a class or individual The meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas |
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Conceptual Knowledge |
Knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties |
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Connection Weight |
-Determines how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit |
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Crowding |
-Refers to the fact that animals tend to share many properties (like eyes, legs, and the ability to move.) |
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Definitional approach to Categorization |
We can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category |
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Embodied Approach |
- States that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object. EX: when a person uses a hammer, sensory areas are activated in response to the hammer's size, shape, and color, and in addition, motor areas are activated that are involved in carrying out actions involved in using a hammer |
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Exemplar |
are actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past. |
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Exemplar approach to categorization |
Like the prototype approach, involves determining whether an object is similar to other objects. |
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Family resemblance |
Refers to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways |
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Graceful Degradation |
-Disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged |
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Hidden Units |
-Receives signals from input units, then sends signals to output units |
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Hierarchical Model |
-Consists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts, such as "canary" and "salmon" are at the bottom and more general concepts are at higher levels |
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Hierarchical Organization |
A kind of organization, in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories, creating a number of levels of categories |
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Hub and Spoke Model |
- According to this model, areas of the brain that are associated with specific functions are connected to the ATL, which serves as a hub that integrates the information from these areas. |
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Input Units |
-Units activated by stimuli from the environment ( or stimuli presented by the experimenter) |
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Lexical decision task |
-Subjects read stimuli, some of which are words and some of which are not. Their task is to indicate as quickly as possible whether each entry is a word or nonword. Ex: the correct responses for bloog would be "no" and for bloat would be "yes" |
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Mirror neurons |
-Neurons that are called mirror neurons because the neuron's response to watching the experimenter grasp an object is similar to the response that occurs when the monkey is performing the action itself |
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Multiple-factor approach |
-The idea of distributed representation -Focuses not on brain areas or networks that are specialized for specific concepts but on searching for more factors that determine how concepts are divided up within a category |
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Output Units |
Input units -> Hidden units -> Output units |
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Parallel distributed processing (PDP) |
-Connectionist models designed to represent concepts. -They propose that concepts are represented by activity that is distributed across a network |
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Prototype |
Is a typical member of the category |
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Prototype approach to categorization |
Membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category |
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Semantic category approach |
-Proposes that there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories |
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Semantic dementia |
-Causes a general loss of knowledge for all concepts. -Patients tend to be equally deficient in identifying living things and artifacts |
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Semantic network approach |
-Focuses on how categories or concepts are organized in the mind. -Proposes that concepts are arranged in networks |
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Semantic somatotopy |
-Correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity |
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Sensory-functional (S-F) hypothesis |
- States that our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function |
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Sentence verification technique |
The procedure for the sentence verification technique is simple. Subjects are presented with statements and are asked to answer "yes" if they think the statement is true and "no" if they think it isn't |
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Spreading activation |
-Activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node. EX: moving through the network from "robin" to "bird" activates the node at "bird" and the link we use to get from robin to bird. But according to the idea of spreading activation, this activation also spreads to other nodes in the network, as indicated by the dashed lines. |
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Subordinate (specific) level |
"for example kitchen table" |
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Superordinate (global) level |
" for example Furniture" -The first level of categories |
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
-Temporarily disrupting the functioning of a particular are of the human brain by applying a pulsating magnetic field. |
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Typicality effect |
The ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly |
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Connectionism |
-An approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes. |
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LTM |
The system that is responsible for storing info for long periods of time. "Archive" |
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Serial position Curve |
Indicates that memory is better for words at the beginning of the list and at the end of the list than for words in the middle |
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Primacy Effect |
Subjects are more likely to remember words presented at the beginning of a sequence Subjects have time to rehearse and transfer to LTM |
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Recency Effect |
The better memory for the stimuli presented at the end of a sequence Explanation: most recently presented words are still in STM |
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Coding |
Refers to the form in which stimuli are represented |
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Visual coding in ST and LT memory |
EX you use visual coding if you remembered the pattern visually in your mind. In LTM when you visualize a person or place from the past. EX if you are remembering your fifth grade teachers face |
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Auditory Coding In ST and LTM |
When you 'play' a song in your head. When listening to a CD or playlist they have listened to many times, they 'hear' the beginning of the next song during the silence, just before it comes on |
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Semantic Coding in STM: The Wickens Experiment |
Proactive interference: The decrease in memory that occurs when previously learned info interfere with learning new info |
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Semantic coding in LTM: The Sachs experiment |
Recognition memory: The finding that specific wording is forgotten but the general meaning can be remembered for a long time has been confirmed in many experiments. |
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Hippocampus |
Eliminating/ removal of leads to the inability to form new long-term memories |
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Mental Time travel |
The experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with events that happened in the past. Tulving |
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Autobigraphical memory |
Memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and sematic components |
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Personal semantic memories |
Facts associated with personal experiences |
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Semanticization of remote memories |
Loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events |
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Explicit Memories |
Are memories we are aware of |
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Implicit Memories |
Occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious remembering |
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Procedural memory |
(skill memory) Memory for doing things that usually involve learned skills. EX tying your shoes |
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Priming |
Occurs when the presentation of one stimuli changes the way a person responds to another stimuli Repetition priming: Occurs when the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimuli |
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Propaganda effect |
Subjects are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, simply cuz they have been exposed to them before |
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Classical conditioning |
Occurs when the following two stimuli are paired (1) A neutral stimulus that initially doesn't result in a response & (2) A conditioning stimulus that does result in a response |
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Psychogenic fugue |
Memory loss, symptoms include traveling away from where the person lives and a lack of memory for the past, especially personal information such as name, relationship, place of residence and occupation |
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Encoding |
The process used to get information into LTM |
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Retrieval |
The process of transferring info from LTM to working memory |
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Maintenance rehearsal |
Repeating something over and over. This rehearsal results in poor memory |
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Elaborative rehearsal |
Relating to something meaningful. This rehearsal results in better memory than maintenance |
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Levels of Processing theory: |
Proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart according to the theory memory depends on depth of processing that a level receives |
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Depth of processing |
Shallow processing: Involves little attention to meaning. EX repeating a phone number or whether a letter is lower or upper case Deep: Involves close attention, focusing on an items meaning and relating it to something else. |
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Designed questions for depth of processing |
(1) Physical features= shallow processing (2) rhyming= deeper processing (3) Fill in the blanks= deepest processing |
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Paired associate learning: |
In which a list of words pairs is presented. Later the first word of each pair is presented and the subjects task is to remember the words it was paired with |
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Self-reference effect |
Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself. |
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Generation effect |
Norman slameka and Peter Graf generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention |
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Retrieval cue |
A word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory |
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Testing effect |
The enhanced performance due to retrieval practice |
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Free Recall |
A subject is simply asked to recall stimuli |
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Cued Recall |
The subject is presented w/retrieval cues to aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli. These cues are typically words or phrases. |
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Encoding Specificity |
States that we encode information along with its context |
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State-dependent learning: |
Learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness. |
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Transfer-appropriate processing |
Better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval. |
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Consolidation |
The process that transforms new memories from a fragile state in which they can be disrupted to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. |
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Synaptic Consolidation |
Which takes place over minor hours involves structural changes at synapses |
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Systems consolidation |
Which takes place over moths or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits w/in the brain. |
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Long-term Potentiation (LTP) |
Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation |
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Standard model of consolidation |
Proposes that incoming information activates a number of areas in the cortex |
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Reactivation |
A process in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated w/ a memory |
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Retrograde amnesia |
Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury can extend back minutes, hours, or even years, depending on the nature of the injury |
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Graded amnesia |
The amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events |
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Multiple trace model of consolidation |
The hippocampus is involved in retrieval of episodic memories, even if they originated long ago |
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Reconsolidating |
These experiments support the idea that when a memory is retrieved it becomes fragile, as it was when it was originally formed and that when it is in this fragile state it needs to be consolidated again |
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Spacing effect |
When studying is broken into a number of short sessions w/ breaks in between |
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Reminiscence bump |
The enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40 |
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Self-Image hypothesis |
Clare Rathbone proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self image or life identity is being formed |
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Cognitive hypothesis |
Proposes that periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cases stronger encoding of memories. |
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Cultural life script hypothesis |
Distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life and a cultural life script |
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Cultural life script |
Which is the culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span |
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Amygdala |
Amygdala activity was higher for emotional words |
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Weapons focus |
The tendency to focus attention on a weapon during the commission of a crime, which is typically a high emotion situation. |
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Flashbulb memory |
Refer to a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events. |
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Repeated Recall |
To determine whether memory changes over time by testing subjects a number of times after an event. |
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Narrative rehearsal hypothesis |
Ulric Neisser argue that we may remember events like those that happened on 9/11 not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse these events after they occur |
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Constructive nature of memory |
When people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person's knowledge, experience, and expectations. |
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Repeated Reproduction |
Which the same subjects tried to remember the story at longer and longer intervals after they had first read it. (Bartlett) |
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Source Monitoring |
Is the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs. |
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Source monitoring error |
Misidentifying the source of a memory. Also called Source misattributions cuz the memory is attributed to the wrong source. |
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Cryptoamnesia |
Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others. |
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Pragmatic inference |
Which occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence. |
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Schema |
Is a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment |
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Script |
Is our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience. |
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Misinformation effect |
Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an even can change how the person describes that event later. (Misleading post event information or MPI) |
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Retroactive Interference |
Which occurs when more recent learning (the misinformation) interferes with memory for something that happened in the past. (the actuarial event) |
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Post identification feedback effect |
Increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification. |
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Cognitive interview |
Which is based on what is known about memory retrieval. Involves letting the witness talk w/a minimum of interruption & also uses techniques that help witnesses recreate the situation present at the crime scene by having them place themselves back in the scene and recreate things like emotions they were feeling, where they were looking, and how the scene might have appeared when viewed from different perspectives |
