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151 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 3 functions of blood?
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Transportation/Distribution of Essential Substances
Regulation/Maintenance Protection/Prevention |
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Describe the Transportation function of blood.
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Transportation/Distribution of Essential Substances
Gases -- O2 and CO2 Nutrients -- absorbed from digestive system into blood Wastes -- excess water, ions, carried to kidneys to be eliminated |
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Describe the Regulation and Maintenance function of blood.
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Hormonal -- carried from endocrine glands to targets
Temperature -- when ambient temp is high, diverts blood from deep vessels to superficial vessels -- when ambient temp low, diverts blood from superficial to deeper vessels to help keep body warm Maintains normal pH and maintains adequate fluid volume |
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Describe the protection/prevention function of blood.
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prevents blood loss -- clotting (platelets or thrombocytes)
prevents infection -- WBC |
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what are the two major components of blood?
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plasma
formed elements |
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describe the function of plasma
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55% of blood
the liquid portion made up mostly of water (92%) and proteins (7%) contains albumins, globulins and fibrinogens -- also contains regulatory proteins such as peptides |
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describe the function of formed elements.
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45% of blood
made up of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes |
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define erythrocyte
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red blood cell (RBC)
transports oxygen and CO2 |
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define Leukocyte
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white blood cell (WBC)
fights invading microbes and their toxins |
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define thrombocytes
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Platelets
Cell fragments Clotting! |
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GENERAL function of plasma
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liquid portion of blood
links internal and external environments |
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describe albumins
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most abundant plasma protein (60-80%)
contributes to the viscosity & osmotic pressure produced by liver, secreted into blood acts as a carrier for various molecules-- fatty acids, bile, salts, penicillin, etc. |
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describe globulins
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25-35% of the proteins in plasma
multiple subtypes some bind specific molecules that are poorly water soluble such as cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins, thyroid hormone, iron immunoglobins some play a role in regulating salt balance |
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what are immunoglobins
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globulins from the blood plasma that function in immunity
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describe fibrinogens
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account for about 4% of blood plasma
produced in liver and help with clotting process |
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what is the result on the osmotic pressure of having proteins in plasma
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pressure is higher than that of interstitial fluid
therefore it pulls water from interstitial fluid into capillaries |
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what's included in the last 1% of plasma
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Misc.
nutrients and hormones wastes such as creatinine, bilirubin, urea dissolved gases electrolytes (ions) & organic molecules (glucose, amino acids, lipids, vitamins) |
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define hematocrit
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Ratio of RBC to Plasma
The percentage of blood volume occupied by erythrocytes as they are packed down in a centrifuged blood sample |
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hematocrit levels
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45% in men
42% in women |
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why is the RBC count lower in women and what else affects the level?
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androgens stimulate RBC production
women or reproductive age have menstrual losses hematocrit is inversely proportional to % body fat (body fat up, hematocrit down) men have fewer vessels in skin and blood clots faster |
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Define Hemopoesis/Hematopoiesis
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The formation of blood cells
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Describe Pluripotent Stem Cells
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AFTER BIRTH are the source of all blood cells, reside in the red marrow
continuously divide and differentiate to give rise to each types of blood cells stem cells found in red bone marrow found in long bones |
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Where does hematopoiesis occur in the fetus
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liver
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Define Erythropoisis
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production of RBC
best understood region of blood cell development begins early in embryonic development and continues throughout lifetime originate in yolk sac of embryo, migrate to liver |
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describe erythropoeitin (EPO)
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aka EPO
hormone secreted by kidneys blood O2 levels are low which stimulates erythropoiesis by bone marrow released on demand |
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what are reticulocytes
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immature RBCs produced in large amounts during an emergency situation the stage right before
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leukopoiesis
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production of WBCs
produced at varying rates depending on need |
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describe the function of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (neulast)
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high powered drug designed to mimic messengers involved in leukopoiesis which stimulates the immune system
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Define Thrombopoietin (TPO)
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produced by liver, stimulates proliferation of megakaryocytes and their growth and development into platelets.
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Define Leukopoiesis
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production of white blood cells
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Define Hemolysis
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the breakage of blood cells
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in the fetus, where are blood cells formed?
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liver
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after birth where are blood cells formed?>
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bone marrow
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are all blood cells produced at a constant rate>?
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no blood cells are produced on demand by the body
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describe the structure of hemoglobin
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4 protein chains called globins (2 alpha 2 beta)
each chain is bound to a heme group (red pigmented molecule that contains iron) heme group binds O2 to an iron ion at its center each heme group can carry one molecule of O2 so each hemoglobin molecule as a whole can trasport up to 4 O2 (because there are 4 hemes) CO2 binds to the globins not the heme |
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What is the significance of RBCs not having any organelles?
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prevents them from respiring aerobically (therefore they can transport O2 without using it)
They can't repair themselves if damage occurs |
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Why do RBCs continually die off?
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They can't repair.
as they age their membranes become increasingly fragile erythrocyte graveyard (spleen) traps the dying RBCs The RBCs eventually rupture as they try to squeeze through the capillaries |
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What happens to cell fragments as they die?
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phagocytized by macrophages in spleen and liver
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explain the dangers of blood doping
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increases viscosity of blood
leads to very high blood pressure and reduced delivery of blood to tissues heart must work harder to pump the blood leads to dehydration |
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what is hypoxemia or hypoxia
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low blood O2 levels
stimulates erythropoiesis happens naturally in change from high to low altitude |
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describe polycythemia
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dangerous excess of RBCs (like blood doping only naturally occurring)
cause by chronic hypoxemia -- stimulates release of EPO caused by cancer, emphysema, smoking, air pollution the excess of RBCs makes circulation poor |
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describe anemia
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refers to any condition that compromises the O2 carrying capacity of the blood
low hemoglobin/low RBC count |
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nutritional anemia
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dietary deficiency of factor needed for erythropoiesis (iron)
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how is hemoglobin broken down?
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splits into globin and heme
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how is globin broken down?
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hydrolyzed to amino acids which is reused (protein chain)
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how is heme broken down?
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iron portion -- transported to liver and bone marrow and some is used to make new hemoglobin in bone marrow
non-iron heme -- converted into biliverdin then bilirubin which is used in the liver for bile production |
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what is bilirubin
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a yellowish green pigment
excess levels in your body can lead to jaundice (yellowish appearance of body) -- may be a sign of liver disease |
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describe antigens
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large, complex molecule that triggers a specific immune response
helps the body identify what is "self" and "non-self" antigens are found on the surface of cells |
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describe antibodies
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produced and bind with specific antigens against which it is produced leading to the antigen's destruction
you body rejects cells bearing antigens that aren't your own. |
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describe the structure of antibodies
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Y-shaped with antigen binding site on each arm
antibodies identify foreign materials as targets for destruction by phagocytes |
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describe agglutination
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the adhesion of RBCs to each other
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why does agglutination occure?
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the antibodies bind the blood cells together and form complex clumps, this can lead to kidney blockage and hemolysis
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describe megakaryocytes
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a bone marrow cell responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes (platelets), which are necessary for normal blood clotting.
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define hemostasis
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the stoppage of bleeding
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what is the opposite of hemostasis
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hemmorage
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what are the 3 steps of hemostasis
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vasoconstriction
platelet plug formation blood clotting (coagulation cascade) |
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what happens during vasoconstriction
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prompt constriction of the broken vessel
pain receptors innervate nearby blood vessels and cause them to constrict results in temporarily decreased blood flow and pressure within vessel |
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what happens during platelet plug formation
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mechanical blockage of the hole
when a vessel breaks, platelets stick to exposed collagen (platelet adhesion) reduces or stops minor bleeding positive feedback cycle -- platelets send chemical messengers calling for more platelets |
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what happens during the coagulation cascade?
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30 chemical reactions
enzyme thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin fibers fibrin fibers weave together to form the clot |
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what is the role of anti-coagulants
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they inhibit clotting
body has natural 2 heparin and coumadin aspirin prevents platelet plug formation |
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describe the structure of fibrin
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insoluble thread-like molecule
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describe hemophilia
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inability of blood to clot (lack of platelets)
sex-linked, more common in males cured with transfusions of platelets and injections of clotting factor |
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what is thrombus
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abnormal clotting in an unbroken vessel
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what is embolus
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a clot that breaks free and travels in the blood stream, it may lodge in dangerous areas (lungs, heart, brain)
called embolus if thrombus becomes free floating |
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describe leukocytes
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WBCs
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what makes WBCs different
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have nuclei and mitchondria
can leave blood immune vs gas |
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what are the 2 categories of WBCs
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granular
agranular |
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what are the 3 types of granular WBCs
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neutrophils
eosinophils basophils |
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what are the 2 types of agranular WBCs
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monocytes
lymphocytes |
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what type of defense do granulocytes and monocytes have
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non-specific
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what type of defense do lymphocytes have?
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specific
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major role of neutrophils
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MOST NUMEROUS
phagocytic specialists that engulf invaders |
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major role of eosinophils
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attack parasitic invaders to large to be engulfed
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major role of basophils
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the base (store supplies,chemicals histamines)
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major role of monocytes
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scavenger macrophages
large |
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major role of lymphocytes
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2ND most numerous
specific defense against bacteria Tcells attack Bcells for antibodies |
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describe leukemia
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cancer of the white blood cells (uncontrolled proliferation)
WBCs are underformed and outnumber RBCs lowering defenses and leading to anemia results in inadequate defenses death is from bleeding or infection |
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what is systemic circulation?
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the path of blood after its oxygenated
flows from the left ventricle to body and back to heart pumps blood to the system |
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what is pulmonary circulation?
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path of blood from right ventricle through the lungs & back to the heart
rate equal to systemic circulation arteries carry blood away veins return blood |
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what is the purpose of pulmonary circulation?
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oxygenation of blood
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what is the function of PULMONARY ARTERIES?
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carry blood to the lungs, pulmonary veins carry the blood back to the heart
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arteries carry what kind of blood in systemic circulation?
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oxygen-rich blood
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arteries carry what kind of blood in pulmonary circulation?
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oxygen poor/CO2 Rich blood
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veins carry what kind of blood in systemic circulation?
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CO2 rich blood
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veins carry what kind of blood in pulmonary circulation?
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oxygen rich blood
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what is the function of blood vessels
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passageways for blood
all vessels emerge from the base of the heart |
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inferior vena cava (IVC)
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returns blood from areas below the diaphragm to right atrium
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superior vena cava (SVC)
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returns blood from areas above the diaphragm to the right atrium
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Coronary Sinus (a vein)
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returns blood draining from myocardium to right atrium
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pulmonary trunk (an artery)
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directs blood from right ventricle and divides into pulmonary arteries that carry blood to lungs
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pulmonary veins
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two exit each lung and return freshly oxygenated blood to left atrium
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aorta
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largest artery in body
distributes blood from the left ventricle to tissues |
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coronary arteries and coronary veins
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supply and drain blood from myocardium itself
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what is the purpose of the chambers of the heart?
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maintain the pressure
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what are the four chambers of the heart?
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left and right atria
left and right ventricles |
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what do the atria do?
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receive
above ventricles receive blood returning to the heart and transfer it to lower chambers thinner walled |
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what does the right atrium do?
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receieves O2 depleted blood from the body
contains the lowest blood pressure in the body |
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what does the left atrium do?
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receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, pulmonary veins empty here
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what are the atria separated by?
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interatial septum
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fossa ovalis
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hole in heart
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what is the function of the ventricles
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pumping/discharging chambers
more muscle, thicker walls inferior chambers make up most of the volume of the heart ejects blood into the arteries |
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what is the function of the right ventricle
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pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk which routes blood to lungs
receieves from right atrium |
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what is the function of the left ventricle
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ejects blood into the aorta
highest blood pressure in the body |
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what separates the ventricles?
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septum
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atria and ventricles
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contract with eachother at separate times
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describe the structure of the heart valves
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ensure that blood flows through the heart in one fixed direction
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describe the operation of the valves
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PASSIVE
open and close due to pressure differences |
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what are the two valves between the atria and the ventricles
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atrioventricular valves
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what are the valves between the atria and the arteries
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semilunar valves
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describe the structure of semilunar valves
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3 cuplike leaflets that fill with blood, are forced closed when pressure is exerted on them and form a deep leakproof seam
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what is the function of the pulmonary semilunar valve?
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guard opening from right ventricle into pulmonary trunk
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what is the function of the aortic semilunar valve?
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guards opening between left ventricle into aorta
reduces backflow to left ventricle |
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describe the right AV valve
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tricuspid
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describe the left AV valve
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mitral valve
when ventricle is relaxed AV valve cusps open |
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what are myocytes?
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cardiac muscle cells
uninucleate branches, short, fat, interconnected cells joined at specialized cells called intercalated discs abundant mitochondria, dependent on aerobic metabolism |
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2 types of myocytes
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contractile
autorhythmic |
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contractile myocytes
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99%
contract/do the work pumping |
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autorhythmic cells
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aka pacemaker cells
initiate and conduct action potentials without any outside stimulus |
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what is the myocardium
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the middle of three layers forming the heart
endocardium myocardium pericardium |
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what are intercalated discs?
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specialized region where myoctytes join
2 types of membrane junctions |
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what are the 2 types of membrane junctions
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desmosomes
gap junctions |
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what are desmosomes
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prevent adjacent cells from separating during contraction
allows cells to be mechincally/physicically connected to eachother force transfer |
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gap junctions
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electrical synapses of the myocytes
allows for the flowing of waves of depolarization to spread rapidly from cell to cell across heart |
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what are the steps of the cardiac cycle?
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atrial and ventricular diastole
completion of ventricular filling and atrial systole or contraction onset of ventricular contraction (systole) and frist heart sound (lub) ventricular ejection (heart pumps) end of ventricular systole and onset of ventricular relaxation (diastole) and second heart sound--dub |
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Which ion is responsible for lengthening the depolarization phase of an action potential in a contractile myocytes?
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calcium
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what is autorhymicity
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does not need external influence
pacemaker cells have this characteristic |
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tachycardia
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HR >100bpm
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bradycardia
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HR<60bpm
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arrythmia
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abnormal heart rate
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what is defibrillation
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emergency procedure which delivers an electrical shock creating depolarization that triggers AP in all myocytes at the same time, redcooridinating them
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define systole
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peak pressure when blood is pumping
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defin diastole
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lowest pressure when blood is draining into vessels
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what does a blood pressure represent
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cardiac health
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what is stroke volume?
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mL per beat or blood pumped per beat
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what is the formular for cardiac output?
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HR x Stroke volume
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cardiovascular risk factors
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non controllable:
gender - male age - old family history diabetes blood lipids controllable smoking obesity sedentary life untreated hypertension |
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what is a myocardial infarction?
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when the heart gets its blood supply temporarily blocked and part dies
usually from blockage in the coronary artery (the heart's main blood supply) |
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what is atherosclerosis
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deposit of fatty acids inside arterial blood vessels
hardening of the arteries 50% of deaths in US |
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what is ischemia?
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reduced blood supply to the heart usually due to coronary artery disease
results in chest pain called angina pectoris |
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what is immunity?
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protection from disease, particularly infectious disease
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2 components of immunity
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innate immunity
adaptive or acquired immunity (specific) |
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describe innate immunity
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non specific
responses work immediately when body is exposed to threatening agent neutrophils rapid but limited macrophages |
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describe adaptive immuntiy
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specific
b and t lymphocytes |
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examples of innate immunity
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chemical barriers -- stomach acid, ear wax, mucus, tears, microbes on skin
physical barriers -- epithelial membranes, mucous membranes fever |
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2 types of WBCs that play a part in adaptive immunity
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B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes |
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chicken pox immunity
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active immunity (you've been exposed to the antigen through getting it or the vaccine)
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rabies immunity
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passive immunity (you've been given antibodies from another animal)
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measles vaccine
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live virus, active immunity
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autoimmune disorder
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loss of tolerance to self-antigens
immune system attacks self-antigens because it doesn't recognize them |
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active immunity
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you make antibodies
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passive immunity
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you receive antibodies (birth mom or vaccine)
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