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124 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
areas of the frontal lobs are involved in eye...
movement and higher processing of visuospatial working memory
visual acuity
ability to perceive light, contrast between light and ark, resolve a target, have adequate visual fields
receptors for form
interpret shapes such as round or square as well as orientation of lines to each other.
the ventral visual pathway to the temporal lobes serves as
the "what" system largely responsible for object and face recognition
the dorsal pathway to the parietal lobes is specialized in?
the "where" system, is specialized for spatial location.
visual pathway as a "bottom-up" process
the way the book veiws it: analyzing rudimentary or local bits of information that are built up into coherent percepts, the issue of degree of impact of "top-down" or perceptual-driven processiing on vision is an area of debate.
the eye functions as a type of
camera, mappng visual images on the retina and transmitting the inverted "picture" to a corresponding "retinotopic" map to the primary visual processing area of the cortex.
rods and cones transduce
electromagnetic wavelengths of light energy and extract properties of objects
cones
detect wavelengths of color, are fewer, and center in the middle of the retina
rods
more numerous, surround the cones, and are attuned to the shades of gray we experience in low-light and nighttime conditions
visual stimuli from the right side of space (right visual field) activate
receptors on the left side of each retina, and information from the left visual field activates right-sided receptors.
retina sens projections to which brain areas?
pineal gland, superchiasmatic nucleus, hypothalamus, 10% to superior colliculus (in midbrain tectum), most to occipital cortex
pineal gland and superchiamatic nucleus
important in regulating long biological rhythms such as migration in brids and the circadian rhythms of sleep and wakefulness.
route leaving the eye
1) rods+cons turn light energy into neural signal and relay to ganglion cells that form optic nerve (cranial nerve 2)
2) optic chiasm (anterior to pituitary, info joins from both eyes and partially decussates)
3) after passing through optic chaism, cranial nerve 2 (optic nerve) synapse with lateral geniculate body of the thalamus
4) occipital lobes
Retinalgeniculostriate pathway
Photoreceptive cells on retina>rods sensitive to small degrees of light. Cones sensitive to color but require high degree of illumination. Cells detect light energy, transform it into neural signal and relay it to ganglion cells (retina). Axons of the ganglion cells form optic nerve (cranial nerve II) and pass through the optic chiasm (now called the optic tract) and terminate in the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus.
cranial nerve 2? what is it and where does it terminate
optic nerve. part of retinogeniculate pathway. terminates in the LGB of thalamus.
the lateral geniculate body of thalamus. what visual pathway is it from and where does it go?
part of retinogeniculostriate pathway. gets input from the cranal nerve 2 (optic nerve) after it passes throgh the optic chaism.
-fibers project to primary visual cortex area V1 (brodmans area 17) and then to visual association areas
what can be said about visual stim in relation to the lateral geniculate body LGB?
fibers from the temporal half of the retina do not decussate.
-fibers from the nasal half cross over at the optic chaism.
-therefore! the info from the right visual feild is projected tothe left LGB and fibers from the left visual field is projected to the right LGB.
what is the striate cortex?
imput from?
works with?
sends to?
visual area V1: functinally it is the primary visual cortex (formerly brodmans area 17). it lies in the most posterior aspect of the occipital lobe but also projects into the medial portion of each hemisphere.
- visual info is projected to it from the LGB. it begins cortical coding of visual features like colour, luminance, orientation, movement.
-surrounded by EXTRASTRIATE CORTEX: distinct areas specialized analyse specific aspects of scene (coulor, motion, location, form).
-2 pathways from strait to extraite regions convey different streams of infomation: V1 to temporal lobe (ventral pathway) "what". and V1 to perital lobe (dorsal pathway)-"where"
describe the layers of the LGB?
6 layers of cells that correspond with perceiveing color, acuity, speed and contrast sensitivity.
-the ventral 2 layers=color blind and involved with contrst sensitivity, respond faster, express higher resolution.
-the 4 dorsal layers are color sensitive, involed in lower contrast sensitivity, respond more slowly, express lower resolution.
lower portion of visual field projects
more dorsal, close to parietal lobes
upper portion of visual field projects
more ventral, next to the temporal lobes
areas V1 (visual area 1, Brodmann's area 17. striate ctx)
primary visual ctx. lies most posterior aspect of the occipital lobes, with a major potion of it extending onto the medial portion of each hemisphere
secondary association or prestriate cortex
contiguous and corresponds to functional visual areas V2 through V5. form donut like rings around V1.
-responsible for elementary visual representation: process primary features like light wavelength, wave orientation, features of shape. represent the building blocks of the eventual composite image.
Functionally, the retinogeniculostriate pathway??
(2) conveys info by several independent parallel pathways that allows an object’s shape, colour, position, and motion appeared unified even though they are processed separately (e.g., prosopagnosia=the inability to recognise faces.)
tectal pathway. steps and function
tectal= RE-SUCO-TH-INCO (Resuco Thinco)
Retina >superior colliculus > thalamus > inferotemporal cortex

Functionally, it is involved with visual attention and movement (reflex pathway)
Retinohypothalamic Tract
Retina > hypothalamus. just think retina to hypothalamus. thats it!

Functionally, it is related to circadian rhythms
retinotrropic map? location
function
area v1. maintains the same topographic realtions smoung visual elements as are mapped on retina.
-primay purpose to asssemble and realy info to the prestraite areas(aka seconday association cortex V2-V5).
-in recipricol fashion V1 recievs info back from the prestraite areas (v2-v5) and plays role in spacial orientation.
the prestriate cortex aka secondary assiciation cortex corresponds to what visual areas? V??
V2 V3 V4 V5
prmary purpose of V1
assemble and send information to the prestrate areas (V2-V5)
the prestraite areas is responsible for??
elementary visual interpretation. process primary feactures like light wavelength, line orientation, features of shape.
area V2
(closely related to V1, also a visual preprocessing area, assembling and mapping info.)
damage to area V1 causes
cortical blindness or hemianopia in the opposite visual field. if in both hems then complete blindness will occur.
blindsight
from damage to V1. people with cortical blindness are sometimes able to indicate that a stimulus is present, that it has moved, or that it is in a certain location even though they have no conscious ability to "see"
no reports exist on the effect of damage to V2 alone because
V2 encircles V1 like a donut
Occipital areas (V3-V8) are organized into four parallel systems with reciprocal integration:
motion, color, dynamic form (without color) and color with dynamic form or shape.
Area V3 appears specialized for
dynamic form, or recognition of moving shape, but does not code aspects of color
area V4 is selective for the
electromagnetic wavelengths of color, some aspects of line orientation, and form (color-and-form area)
area V5 (also called area MT) lies on the
occipitoparietal juncture and receives input from a number of visual cortical areas. it contains visual motion detector cells specialized to respond to direction of motion. columns of cells within the layers of the cortex are responsive to different directions
damage to V4 results in
achromatopsia, complete loss of ability to detect color
V4 and V8 are
contiguous to each other, and some have also attributed color processing to area V8.
Lesions to area V5 result in
akinetopsia, specific inability to identify objects in motion
damage to areas V3-V5 result in
a general inability to perceive form. (patients may be able to copy drawing but are unable to understand the connection of lines corresponds to a shape)
the occipital cortex processes
elementary aspects of vision
neuroscientists have identified at least
20 areas of secondary or higher visual processing
"what" system of visual processing
ventral processing stream of object recognition. how visual elements are integrated so that the veiwer appreciates the price sof vision as a coherent whole.
"where" system of visual processing
dorsal processing stream of object localization. how objects are located within a spacial whole.
the two anatomically distinct areas of ventral and dorsal streams are probably coordinated through
the thalamus
problem of object recognition by vision
visual agnosia
spatial location problem
neglect
what is agnosia? what does it require?
"absense of knowing" inability to recognise the identity or nature of sensory stimuli.
- modality specific
-intact basic sensory processing
-caused by focal damage or diffuse cause.
ventral processing stream of the LH more specific to?
recognizing symbolic objects such as letters and numbers (increased blood flow when people process strings of letters).
Right ventral system more specific to? damage can result in?
global recognition of objects and faces. damage to this system can result in visual agnosia
ventral processing stream contains interconnected regions from the __to the ___regions?
occipital to the temporal. the VVS is part of three areas; the occiptio, occipito-temporal and temporal regions.
dorsal processing stream is for____? connects the?
localizing objects in space, and appreciating the realtive relation of those objects to one another.
connects the occipital and perital lobes.
through reciprocal feedback to motor system, the "where" system helps
planning and coordinating motor movements
dorsal visual stream/pathway "where" system. dissorders in this area result in?
R-L discrimination problems, constructional apraxia, and neglect
patients with directional impairment (Right-Left discrimination problem)
get lost if left alone
constructional apraxia
inability to perform actions that require three-dimensional movement.
visual object agnosia (greek "gnosis" meaning absense of knowing)
fail to recognize objects, or in mild cases confuse objects w/ those observed from different angles or in different lighting
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize people by their faces
apperceptive visual agnosia and associative visual agnosia
object perception deficit (inability to combine the individual aspects of visual info into a "whole" percept)
associative visual agnosics have difficulty
in assigning meaning to an object
apperceptive form of object agnosics
"classic form", most severe. take no apparent notice of objects and people in their vicinity.appear to disregard their problem. difficulty copying objects because they only see pieces of the whole
damage site in apperceptive agnosia
parieto-occipital area of the RH from sudden insults such as CO posioning, mercury intoxication, cardiac arrest, stroke, but also bilateral cortical atrophy.
Lissaur (1989) described?
two types of agnosia. aperceptive cannot see objects. associative: do no know what the object is.
modality specific refers to?
having a impaired visual understanding but having a smell understanding intact. like dr P who was able to know what the rose was when he smelled it.
Balint's syndrome
type of apperceptive agnosia. caused by damage in parieto-occipital areas of both hemispheres. visual agnosia together with other visuospatial difficulties such as misreaching and left-sided neglect
In The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat,
Oliver Sacks describes the affliction of Dr. P, an apperceptive agnosic who can no longer recognize objects or people by sight. He described a rose as a specimen (unaware of gestalt of objects) He could no combine sight of rose into meaning of rose
dorsal simultagnosia? caused by? what are the symptoms?
Perception of shapes is restricted to a single visual area
- unable to shift visual attention
“[F]ail to integrate information into global image of visual space and thus, cannot sustain attention to multiple areas in the visual environment at any given time despite intact visual inputs (Girkin & Miller, 2001, p. 392).
-Cannot count objects presented together
-Due to bilateral parieto-occipital damage
Ventral Simultanagnosia
-Fail to integrate single components into a whole object (e.g. parts of a car into a car)
-Cannot perceive more than one object at a time
-Milder form than dorsal simultanagosia
-Due to lesions in the left occipito-temporal junction
Associative Agnosia: drawing objects problems?
-Able to group objects and copy drawings
-Unable to draw from memory
-Cannot appreciate the entire form of a picture or object
-Deficits more pronounced if the object becomes degraded
-Makes “visual similarity” errors
-Poor at matching novel or complex objects
associative agnosia primary difficulty ? caused by?
loss of knowledge of the semantic meaning of objects caused by a LH parieto-occipital lesion or unilateral RH occipital lesion
left hemisphere in general
assigns meaning
right hemisphere in general
governs global aspects of perceptual integration
Prosopagnosia cuased by?
Bilateral or right hemispheric damage to fusiform gyrus or occipitotemporal area
Prosopagnosia informs us of the following for facial processing:
-Posterior right hemisphere is important
-Anterior fusiform gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus important for facial identification and retrieval of biographical information
-Superior temporal sulcus is sensitive to facial gestures and facial orientation
Auditory Agnosia. what is it? what types?
Impaired capacity to recognize sound but adequate hearing
3 types:
-Verbal auditory agnosia or pure word deafness - cannot understand speech sounds
-Nonverbal auditory agnosia - cannot understand non-speech sounds
-Mixed auditory agnosia - cannot attach meaning to speech and non-speech sounds
Somatosensory or Tactile Agnosia. also called. problems with? possibly due to damage in?
-Also called astereognosis
-Unable to identify objects by touch in the absence of sensory deficits, naming problems, or intellectual deterioration
2 types proposed:
-Unable to use tactile information to form a percept
-Tactile asymbolia: unable to link percept to symbolic meaning
-May be due to damage to left inferior parietal area
neglect is a dissorder of the" _____" system?
where
propagnosia is a dissorder of the "__" system. it is a type of ______ agnosia.
what. visual object agnosia
LH parieto-occipital lesion or RH occipital lesion causes?
associative agnosia: loss of knowledge of the semantic meaning of objects
achromatopsia is? caused by
comeplete loss of ability to detect color. damage to v4.
Retina >superior colliculus > thalamus > inferotemporal cortex...what is this sequence from? what does this pathway do?
tectal pathway: Functionally, it is involved with visual attention and movement (reflex pathway)
what is Also called astereognosis?
somatosensory or tactile agnosia.
explain the confusion regarding causes for associative agnosia.
-what does this say about the differences between associative and appercetive agnosia?
a lateralized LH parito-occipital lession may be enough to cause an associative agnosia, althogh it can occur in the presence of a unilateral occipital lession.
-also a number of other sites are thought to cause associative agnosia.
-since assingning meaning is so complex, idifferent lession sites can cause similiar effects.
-also of patients show both associative and apperceptive agnosia, the two dissorders dont correspond to certain anatomic correlates that can be redily differentiated.
damage to what area is the most common for unilateral neglect?
RIGHT perito-occipital and inferior parietal area. causing neglect of LEFT side.
people with neglect loose consciousness of?
awareness of personal space despite adequetly funtionsing sensory and motor systems.
-may look liek right motor strip or somatosensory damage cause LEFT arms etc hang limp. but in reality they are being ignored by the conscious mind.
-the collide with things on their left side, when reading they leave out the left side of page, copy drawing without left side.
-they think the left side doesnt belong to them.
what types of objects to apperceptive agnostics have trouble recognizing?
fragmented, entangled and objects seen from unusual veiws.
instead of thinkn of neglet as forgetting the left side, think?
pulled to right side. they veer rightward when tryin to navigate.
what system does object recognition?
-what areas does it include?
the ventral visual system allows us to identify visual objects.
-VVS includes areas of the occipital, occipitotemporal, and temporal lobes
The process of visual information involves what three things?
1: reconstruct 3d simuli based on 2d information
2: recognize objects regardless of retinal variations (eg retinal size, position, etc)
3: recognize objects regardless of their orientation and other visual variations (eg. lighting, distortions)
thoery of autism and hearing>
they may not detect the hihger frequency we do.
directional impairment is usually refered to as?
what causes this?
a right-left discrimination problem.
-problem in the dorsal visual stream.
Monkey research on ventral visual stream shows?
posterior vs anterior with resect to diff types on simiuli?
-vvc is sensitive to? allowing for?
-very similiar to human brain
-Posterior regions respond to simple visual stimuli whereas anterior regions respond to more complex and specific stimuli
-Receptive fields are larger in anterior regions compared with posterior regions
-VVC is sensitive to colour, allowing for figure-ground separation
monkey research on vision: information going to the anterior and inferior temportal lobe that respond to...?
specidic simuli eg. Hands faces etc.
human reseach shows that up to __ the system is the same as monkeys.

after V__ temporal regions important for object recognition include?
V4.
-lateral occipital cortex
-fusiform face area
-parahippocampal place area
monkey reaseach:
anterior vs posterior with respect to receptive feild size?
larger in anterior.
Areas are believed to be involved in object recognition, if they show:
what meets this criteria>?
a; Form - cue invariance
b; Perceptual constancy
-lateral occipital cortex. but its unclear if it is processing objects or representing complex shapes.
Does the temporal lobe contain specialized cells or does it respond in a generalized way? reseach shows that what sepific areas process what clases of objects?
-research also shows that a _____ may respond to similair objects.
fusiform face area=faces
-Parahippocampal area: places in the local environment
-Extrastriate body area: human bodies and parts
-Research also shows that a distributed network of cells may respond to similar objects
VVC is organized_______.
left is important for?
-right is important for?
-what has precedence in VVC?
VVC is organized laterally
Left hemisphere important for local processing
Right hemisphere important for global processing
Global precedence in VCC: global information is processed before local information
humans detect sounds from ___hz to ___hz
30-20,000
thoery of autism and hearing>
they may not detect the hihger frequency we do.
sound cosists of
changes in air pressure.
pressure waves cause?
this produces waves in the fluid
vibration of ear drum and bones in the ear.
- of inner ear (choclea)
in middle of fluid is the ______ which contains hair cells. (_____________), tranduce pressure waves into information that synapses to the ____________.
in middle of fluid is the bailiar membrane which contains hair cells. (audiotory receptor), tranduce pressure waves that produce info that synapses to the audiotory nerve 3.
hair cells leave the cochlea to form the
auditory nerve CN VIII
hair cells further away from sensitive to ?
hair cells near bones sesitive to?
hair cells near bones are sensitive to high frequency sounds.
-hair cells further away sensitive to low frequency sounds.
-in medualla, nerve synapses with ________.
what can be said about these connections?
-in medualla, nerve synapses with coclear nucleaus.
-ipsilateral and contralateral connections!
-at coclear nucleas (medulla), some fibers cross to synapse __________; some synapse with ____________.
-at coclear nucleas (medulla), some fibers cross to synapse contralateral superior olice; some synapse with ipsilateral superior olive.
-from superior olive information relayed to _______then to _________ of the thalamus.
from there onto__________________.
-from superior olive information relayed to inferior colliculus, then to medial geniculate nucleaus of the thalamus.
-from there onto primary audiotory cortex (herchels gyrus)
list the 5 steps of hearing. nerve, nucleus cotexa etc......
cochlear nerve (branch of VIII cranial nerve)> coclear nucleaus> superior olive> inferior clicolous> thalamus> auditory cortex.
how does audiotory syste differ from visual system?
-this may help someoone?
each hem recieves info from both ears. bilatteral representaiton of sound.
-may help person localize sound in space
hearing Branches apart at the __________. Communicates back and fourth at ________. This is all connected by __________.
Branches apart at the coclear nucleaus. Communicates back and fourth at inferior cocleaus. This is all connected by corpus collosum
OLFACTION:
2 pathways:
1: one projects to amygdala of the limbic system
2: one projects via medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus to orbitofrontal cortex.
-system is ipsilateral- so right olfactory bulb projects to right hemisphere. It the only sense that is isilateral.
-Lessions in the olfactory pathway!
-ANOSMIA: inabiltiy to perceive or discriminate between odors.
LESSIONS OF AUDIOTORY PATHWAY: what pathways cause waht>>?????
-deffness in one ear is due to alession in the cochlear nerve.
-diminishing hearing: unilateral lessions in ascending pathways.
-Tinnitus: organ of corti. Hissing type sounds. Can range from mild from very diruptive. This is also caused by streptomyasin (antibiotic) and aspirin can cause it as well.
-presbycusis: degeneration of hair cells
-superior olive: poor sound localization. It gets information from both ears and compares then so if you have a lession there you have difficulaty localizing sounds. You hear but you dont know where its coming from.
Tonotopy? what does it mean. where is it found?
Tonotopy (from Greek tono- and topos = place: the place of tones) is the spatial arrangement of where sound is perceived, transmitted, or received. It refers to the fact that tones close to each other in terms of frequency are represented in topologically neighbouring neurons in the brain. Tonotopic maps are a particular case of topographic organization.

There is tonotopy in the cochlea on the basilar membrane, the small snail-like structure in the inner ear that sends information about sound to the brain.

There is also tonotopy in the human auditory cortex, that part of the brain that receives and interprets sound information:

*
o sounds of low pitch project into the anterolateral aspect of Heschl's gyrus
o sounds of high pitch project deeply into the lateral fissure (which houses Heschl's gyrus).
ANOSMIA=
inabiltiy to perceive or discriminate between odors.
facial recognition:
descrimintation. easy to? but?
Discrimination
Easy to discriminate objects on basis of parts and features
However, most faces have two eyes, a mouth, and two ears. Discrimination must come from how features are related to each other within the face (e.g. eyes are closer together).
facial recognition:Hemispheric Specificity
Judgments of faces are more accurate and faster when presented to right hemisphere
Faces primarily activate the fusiform gyrus bilaterally and activate right areas of the occipital and temporal lobe
facial recognition:
The Greeble Problem: what is it and what does it tell us about?
Activation of right fusiform face area in greeble ‘experts’ (Gauthier et al.)
Fusiform area may be specific to subordinate level of visual processing in experts
evidence that faces may be special?
Double dissociation of human faces and other visual categories (e.g. Sheep faces in farmer with prosopagnosia)
-Implicit recognition of faces in patients with prosopagnosia
-Electrodermal skin conductance studies
-Interference effects studies
!!!THErs evidcence that the fusiform maybe ________________ but then theres also evicence that________________
!!!THErs evidcence that the fusiform maybe activated in human and non human but then theres also evicence that it mayb be different for human and non human.