Chapter 5: Foundations Of Employee Motivation

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MOTIVATION

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The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior

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EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT

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An individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort to achieve work-related goals

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DRIVES

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Primary needs, fundamental needs, innate motives; hardwired brain characteristics of the brain that correct deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals

*prime movers of behavior by activating emotions

**the nature aspect

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NEEDS

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1. Goal-directed forces that people experience

2. Drive-generated emotions directed toward a goal

3. Needs are influenced by emotion, which are influenced by drives

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NEEDS ARE SHAPED, AMPLIFIED, OR SUPPRESSED THROUGH:

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1. Self-concept

2. Social norms

3. Past experience

*the nurture aspect

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NEEDS-BASED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

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1. Maslow's Hierarchy Theory

2. Learned Needs Theory

3. 4 Drive Theory

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MASLOW'S NEEDS HIERARCHY THEORY

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A motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified

1. Self-Actualization

2. Esteem

3. Belongingness

4. Safety

5. Physiological

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PROBLEM WITH MASLOW'S THEORY

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1. People have different hierachical needs. This theory assumes everyone has the same hierarchy

2. It suggests that needs are fulfilled for long time, when evidence suggests that need fulfillment exists for a much shorter time period

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WHAT MASLOW CONTRIBUTED TO MOTIVATION THEORY

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1. Holistic perspective

2. Humanistic perspective--influence of social dynamics, not just instinct

3. Positive perspective--pay attention to strengths (growth needs) not just deficiencies

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HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE

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An integrative view; needs should be studied together because human behavior is typically initiated by more than one need at the same time. Previous research studied needs individually.

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HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

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Higher-order needs are influenced by personal and social experiences, not just instinct. One of the first to recognize that human thoughts play a role in motivation

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POSITIVE PERSPECTIVE

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Maslow popularized the concept of self-actualization, suggesting that people are naturally motivated to reach their potential and that orgs and societies need to be structured to help people continue and develop this motivation. Previous research focused on need fulfillment from deficiency, or negative perspective

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LEARNED NEEDS THEORY

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Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience. Therefore, needs can be "learned" (strengthened) through reinforcement, learning, and social conditions.

Three learned needs: Need for achievement, affiliation, power

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NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (nAch)

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a learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success

*can be high or low

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NEED FOR AFFILIATION (nAff)

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A learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation

*can be high or low

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NEED FOR POWER (nPow)

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A learned need in which people want to control environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power)

*can be high or low

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FOUR-DRIVE THEORY

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A motivation theory based on the innate drives to acquire, bond, learn, and defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality; drives determine which emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli; holistic and humanistic

*Developed by Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria

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DRIVE TO ACQUIRE

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The drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences; it includes enhancing one's self-concept through relative status and recognition in society

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DRIVE TO BOND

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The drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others

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DRIVE TO COMPREHEND

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The drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us.

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DRIVE TO DEFEND

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the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially. Probably the first to develop, it creates a 'fight-or-flight' response in the face of personal danger.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 4 DRIVES

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1. All innate

2. Independent of one another

3. They are a complete set

4. 3 of the 4 drives are proactive

5. Only the drive to defend is reactive

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HOW FOUR DRIVES AFFECT MOTIVATION

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1. Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming information

2. Drives generate independent and often competing emotions that demand our attention

3. Mental skill set relies on social norms, personal values, and experience to transform drive-based emotions into goal-directed choice and effort

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IMPLICATIONS OF THE FOUR DRIVE THEORY

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1. the best workplaces for employee motivation adn well-being offer conditions that help employees fulfill all four drives

2. fulfillment of the four drives must be kept in balance; orgs should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive to avoid cognitive dissonance

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CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION;

ALSO CALLED PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

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1. Expectancy Theory of Motivation

2. Behavior Modification Theory

3. Social Cognitive Theory

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EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

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A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes; offers a model based on rational logic to predict the chosen direction, level, and persistence of motivation

1. E-to-P expectancy

2. P-to-O expectancy

3. Valence

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E-to-P EXPECTANCY

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Effort-to-Performance

Individual's perceived probability that his or her effort will result in a particular level of performance. Can I do it?

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P-to-O EXPECTANCY

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Performance-to-Outcome

The perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome; intstrumentality. Will I get it?

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OUTCOME VALENCES

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The anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an outcome

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INCREASING E-TO-P EXPECTANCIES

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1. Develop employee competencies

2. Match employee competencies to jobs

3. Provide role clarity and sufficient resources

4. Provide behavioral modeling

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INCREASING P-TO-O EXPENCTANCIES

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1. Measure performance accurately

2. Increase rewards with desired outcomes

3. Explain how rewards are linked to performance

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INCREASING OUTCOME VALENCES

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1. Ensure that rewards are valued--make sure people want what you are rewarding them with

2. Individualize rewards--make people feel unique

3. Minimize countervalent outcomes--e.g. don't offer individualized rewards for team projects

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BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION THEORY

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Theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior

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A-B-C's OF ORG BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

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1. Antecedent--what happens before the behavior

2. Behavior-- What the person says or does

3. Consequences--What happens after the behavior

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FOUR OB MOD CONSEQUENCES

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1. Positive reinforcement

2. Punishment

3. Negative reinforcement

4. Extinction

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POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

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Any consequence that when introduced increases/maintains the target behavior; good behavior gets a good consequence

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PUNISHMENT

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Any consequence that decreases the target behavior; bad behavior gets a bad consequence

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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

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Any consequence that when removed increases/maintains target behavior; good behavior results in the loss of a bad consequence

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EXTINCTION

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When no consequence occurs, resulting in less of the target behavior; no consequence, why would I bother?

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BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION PROBLEMS

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1. Reward inflation

2. Variable ratio schedule viewed as gambling

3. Ignores relevance of cognitive processes in motivation and learning

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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

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More sophisticated approach to the ABC's

Learning behavior outcomes by observing consequences that others experience

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EFFECTIVE GOAL SETTING CHARACTERISTICS

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SMARTER:

1. Specific--what, how, where, when etc.

2. Measurable--how much, how well, etc.

3. Achievable--challenging, yet acceptable

4. Relevant--within employee's control

5. Time-frames--due date and when assessed

6. Exciting--employee commitment

7. Reviewed--feedback and recognition

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BALANCED SCORECARD

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Macro-level goal setting and feedback; attempts to include measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal, and learning/growth processes. Then break it down into meso-level subset of goals. Then micro-level subset of goals.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK

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1. Specific--connected to goal details

2. Relevant--relates to person's behavior

3. Timely--to improve link from behavior to outcomes

4. Credible--trustworthy source

5. Sufficiently frequent

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STRENGTHS-BASED COACNG FEEDBACK

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Maximizing the person's potential by focusing on their strengths rather than their weaknesses. This works because people seek feedback about their strengths, not their flaws.

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MULTISOURCE FEEDBACK

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Received from a full circle of people around the employee; provides more complete and accurate information.

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CHALLENGES WITH MULTISOURCE FEEDBACK

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1. Expensive and time-consuming

2. Ambiguous and conflicting feedback

3. Inflated rather than accurate feedback

4. Stronger emotional reaction to multiple feedback

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF FEEDBACK

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1. Balanced Scorecard

2. Strengths-based Coaching Feedback

3. Multisource Feedback

Front 49

ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE

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1. Distributive Justice

2. Procedural Justice

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DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

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Perceived fairness in outcomes we receive relative to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others; the end result

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PROCEDURAL JUSTICE

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Perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources; a means to an end.

Front 52

EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

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You are motivated when you feel there is an inequitable situation

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ELEMENTS OF EQUITY THEORY

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1. Outcome/input ratio

2. Comparison other--hard to identify!

3. Equity evaluation

*we compare our own ratio with others' ratios.

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CORRECTING INEQUITY TENSIONS

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1. Reduce our inputs--less org citizenship

2. Increase our outcomes--ask for pay increase

3. Increase other's inputs-ask coworker for help

4. Reduce other's outputs--ask boss to stop giving preferred treatment to coworker

5. Change our perceptions--maybe their perks aren't so great

6. Change comparison other--compare self to someone closer to your situation

7. Leave the field--quit job

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HIGHER PROCEDURAL FAIRNESS WITH:

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1. Voice

2. Unbiased decision maker

3. Decision based on all information

4. Existing policies consistently administered

5. Decision maker listened to all sides