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187 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
nature with nurture

one's nature changes one nurture, and reciprocally
current science recognizes that development occurs as a fx of _________
prenatal period (conception to birth)
infancy (b to 2-years)
early childhood (ages 2-6)
middle childhood (ages 6-11)
adolescence (11-20)
adulthood (above 20)

recently added:

emerging adulthood (18-25)
old age (above 80)
The six periods of major transitions in human development
genotype, 23 pairs of chromosomes one inherits from parents
all children come into the world with the set of genes they inherit from their parents
phenotype or one's observable appearance and characteristics
the characteristics the child develops _______ are the result of interaction between genetic and environmental influences over time.
traits, the environment, or in the interaction between the two

trait models
The role environment diverges in models that are primarily focused on _______

____ models, also called medical models, look to predict a later outcome based on earlier status features
environmental models
at their simplest level, view development as occuring as a fx of environmental forces acting continuously on the individuals, with rewards and punishments from the environment directly predicting the individual's behavior
interactional models
the active role of both the child and the environment in development over time. characteristics of both the child and environment must be measured and taken into account to explain current and future behavior and adaptation. This is the current dominant approach in the field based off research
1. Development results from the constant interplay of biology and the environment


principles drawn from the accumulated evidence on development
All children come into the world with the set of genes they inherit from their parents, but only a few traits are genetically "determined". The characteristics a child develops are the result of interaction btw genetic and environmental influences over time. A child may inherit a genetic tendency to be inhibited, for instance, but whether this leads to painful shyness or quiet confidence depends on the child's experiences
2. Development occurs in a multi-layered context


principles drawn from the accumulated evidence on development
Children are profoundly affected by their interpersonal relationships, the social institutions that touch their lives, their culture, and the historical period in which they are developing
3. Development is a dynamic, reciprocal process

principles drawn from the accumulated evidence on development
Children are not passive recipients of environmental influences. They actively shape their own development: by selecting the contexts in which they participate, by imposing their subjective appraisal on the context, and most of all, by affecting what takes place in the context
4. Development is cumulative

developmental trajectory: a child who has poor early relationships is not destined to have bad relationships throughout life, but one who is launched on a healthy trajectory clearly has an advantage

principles drawn from the accumulated evidence on development
Development builds on itself. To understand an individual at one point in life the life span, we need to look at earlier periods. The quality of the infant's relationships at home lays the groundwork for the relationships she forms with school friends, which in turn shapes relationships she develops with intimate friends and lovers. Psychologists call the pathway that connects the past with the present and the future a __________:
5. Development occurs throughout the lifespan

principles drawn from the accumulated evidence on development
the belief that the first years of life are a critical period in development has become part of our popular culture.. however, development continues from birth to death, and change is almost always possible
sensitive or critical periods
encompasses the idea that individuals may have different possible developmental trajectories given the timing of an environmental experience or lack therof
critical period
also called an "all-or-nothing" period, which means that there is a period of growth when something specific must occur (or not occur) if development is proceed normally. Research indicates that there are few truly _______ in human development in which experience or lack therof will eventuate in permanent alteration of a typical developmental tracjectory.
Aspect of development is subject to a sensitive period

supported by research
means that there are times in an individuals development of heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli when a particular experience (or lack of it) has a more pronounced effect on the organism than does the experience at another time
plasticity

it becomes harder to change some aspects of development over time.
defined as sensitivity to the environment engendered by experience , including the capacity of immature systems to take on different functions as a result of experience and the degree to which a developing structure or behavior is modifiable due to experience
continuity
involves the notion that development is a gradual, continuous process of change
discontinuity
involves the notion that development is punctuated by periods of rapid change and sudden emergence of new forms of thought and behavior
stage theories
formal development theories that take a discontinuous approach to development are known as:
risk, risk factor
any characteristic that is associated with an elevated probability of an undesirable outcome; a predictor of an undesirable outcome in a population
resilience
can be defined most broadly as the capacity of a dynamic system to withstand or recover from significant challenges that threaten its stability, viability, or development
passive child and an active environment model
the environment is viewed as controlling the child's behavior and development

(e.g. operant conditioning)
active child, passive environment model
the child is viewed as extracting and constructing his or her knowledge and world

(Piaget's COG development)
active child/active environment model
most dominant model in current development science. (Transactional, epigenetic, bioecological)
Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory
cognitive development is not governed by internal maturation or external teachings alone; instead, children are "little scientists" who actively construct their cognitive worlds through exploration, manipulation, and trying to make sense of their environment.

each stage builds on the next on and leads to qualitative difference in undestanding
Piaget and adaptation
children build mental structures, called schemas, to organize knowledge, adapt to the world, and adjust to new environmental demands
Piaget and assimilation
individuals incorporate new information or experiences into existing schema
Piaget and accommodation
individuals adjust their schema to take into account new information or experiences
Piaget and equilibration
children attempt to create a balance between assimilation and accommodation. The internal search for ________ is the motivation for change that helps to explain children's shift from one stage of thought to the next.
Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)

Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory
infants learn about themselves and the environment by coordinating their sensory experiences with physical actions. Child initially uses primarily reflexive behaviors and by the end can use simple symbols

* the key cognitive-developmental achievement is the ability to create symbolic representations of experiences and the environment
1st substage, simple reflexes (b to 1 month)

sensorimotor stage, substages
a newborne uses reflexes such as rooting and sucking to coordinate sensation and action
2nd substage, first habits and primary circular actions
(1-4 months)
sensorimotor stage, substages
the infant coordinates sensation with two types of schema: habits (reflexes) and primary circular reactions (creation of an event that originally occurred by chance. Primary focus remains on child's body, until next stage
3rd substage, secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)

sensorimotor stage, substages
*an infant moves beyond self-preoccupation and becomes more object-oriented. Accidentally shakes rattle and the repeats the action because he is interested and satisfied with the sound it makes
4th substage, coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)

sensorimotor stage, substages
an infant's actions become outwardly directed and intentional. Able to coordinate touch and vision to make hand-eye movements. object permanence starts to come about (objects continue to exist even if you cannot see/hear them)
5th stage, tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity (12-18 months)

sensorimotor stage, substages
infants become interested in the various properties of objects and the thing that can happen to them. Experiment to explore results
6th stage, internalization of schema (18-24 months)

sensorimotor stage, substages
an infant develops the ability to use simple symbols and form lasting mental representations
2nd stage, pre-operational stage (2-7 years)

Piaget's cognitive development
children use mental representations, such as words, images, and drawings, to understand the world and begin to reason. A chid is not yet able to complete operations or reverse mental actions that are not performed physically, such as mentally adding or subtracting numbers; this stage is dominated by egocentric thinking and magical beliefs
symbolic fx stage, (2-4 years)

1st substage of the pre-operational stage
a young child is able to mentally represent an object that is not present as evidenced by scribbling, language use, and pretend play. Egocentrism; can only show their own perspective (three moutains)

animism
intuitive thought (4-7 years)

2nd substage of the pre-operational stage
begins to use simple reasoning and asks "why" questions to figure out how the world works
3rd stage; concrete operational stage (7-11 years)

Piaget's cognitive development
children are able to reason logically in specific or concrete examples. Mentally reverse actions; their thinking is no longer controlled by concentration, focusing on one aspect to the exclusion of all others. ***Conservation is the understanding that changing the appearance of an object or substance does not change its basic properties (beaker test)
4th and final stage; formal operational stage (11-15 years of age)

Piaget's cognitive development
This stage is characterized by abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking. Instead of relying on trial and error, individuals are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, the ability to develop hypotheses and determine systematically the best way to solve a problem and arrive at a conclusion.
Cog development is less abrupt and stagelike and more gradual and continuous than Piaget thought

overestimated abilities and development is not necessarily a gradual and continuous process

did not consider the influence of the environment, individual differences, cultural variations, and social trends on children's cognitive development

needs greater emphasis on children's use of attention, memory, speed, and strategy to process information
What are some criticism's Piaget's work.
Vygotsky's theory; intstruction
Emphasizes the importance of social interaction and cultural context in shaping children's thinking. ______ plays a major role in cog development, as reflected in the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
encompasses the tasks that are too difficult for a child to complete on his own but can be learned and accomplished with the guidance of an adult or a more skilled child. lower and upper limit
Scaffolding
refers to the changing level of support an instructor provides as she adjusts to a child's current performance level based on his increasing skill level.
bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
emphasizes the influence of environmental factors and systems on individual development

macro and micro influences, but, lacks focus on biological and cognitive influences on development
microsystem

bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
includes all the settings with which the individual directly interacts as well as the contexts that directly influence development, including family, peers, the school, and the neighborhood

actively constructs experiences
mesosystem

bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
consists of the connections among microsystems, such as the relationship between the family and school or the family and peers (parents' interactions with child's teacher)
exosystem

bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
includes contexts within which the individual does not directly interact but has indirect influences on development (changes in parents job)
macrosystem

bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
describes the impact of the broader social context in which an individual lives, including the laws, policies, and ideologies of that culture on development (changes in welfare)
chronosystem

bioecological systems theory or ecological systems

Bronfenbrenner (1979)
represents the developmental patterns and transitions of the individual across time as well as the sociohistorical conditions for that time.
Dynamic Systems Theory

Esther Thelen (2006)
posits that the child's mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. Any change in one context or domain of development can disrupt the entire system, prompting a reorganization that leads to more adaptive functioning. Views develop as a web, with processes and skills branching out. focus on the transitions!
Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) model

Life span theory

Paul Baltes, et al., (1998)
describes three factors critical to successful aging across life span. These action-based processes include the selection of desired goals or strategies that one chooses to pursue, optimization of actions and abilities that be used to achieve goals, and compensation or adjustment of goals and strategies in response to losses in capacity. Structure and direction of individual over time.

age-graded (cog & physical changes) &
non-normative changes (disease)
life span developmental psychology

life span theory
posits that a wide range of developmental pathways can lead to numerous positive development outcomes. The changes occur over time as we age involve a wide range of domains (multidimensional), including social, emotional, and physical growth, that change over time to varying degrees (and thus multidirectionally)
meiosis
produces cells with only half of a set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic material of the parent cell, producing sperm or ova.
crossing over

1st stage of meiosis
in which each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes line up, wrap around each other, and exchange genetic material.
reshuffling

2nd stage of meiosis
takes place when some of the mother's chromosomes align with the father's chromosomes and vie versa. The cell then divides into two, and the chromosomes with new, unique combinations of generic material produce duplicate of themselves. Finally, these cells divide, producing four cells with 23 chromosomes each.
causes by mutations during meiosis

Ex: down syndrome
how chromosomal abnormalities caused?
conception
when the ovum and sperm unite to form a new cell called a zygote.
mitosis

As the zygote travels toward the uterus, it beings to differentiate into cells with specialized roles, with the outer cells to become the placenta and the inner cells the embryo. Once it reaches uterus, implantation occurs.
a cell divides into a copy itself, each receives full 46 chromosomes.
Sex differentiation
Begins at conception, with girls having two X chromosomes and boys having an X and Y chromosome
ectoderm
will become the muscles, bones, ciruclatory system, and some organs
endoderm
will become the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands
embryonic period
the basic structure of a human being appears and organs begin to function
neurogenesis
neurons are produced in the embryo's primitive neural tube, migrate to form the major parts of the brain, and then, once in place, they differentiate, establishing their unique functions by extending fibers forming synaptic connections
end of embryonic period
by the ____ of the ___________ , all the major organ and body parts have formed
fetal period
the primitive organ and body parts develop and grow. Neurogenesis is typically complete by the end of the 6th month, and the brain begins to organize itself, allowing some neurons to die off while others make new connections.
malnutrition
_______ in early pregnancy, paticularly lack of folic acid, increases risk for birth defects such as spina bifida or ancelapathy. New evidence suggests that prenatal folic acid deficiency is associated with increased risk for autism spectrum disorders.
high stress
_______ in pregnancy increases the risk for premature birth.
tetrogen
any substance that have a negative impact on fetal development; must have potential for producing congenital malformations or problems depending on the dosage and timing of exposure during pregnancy. Exposure during a sensitive period may alter anatomy or fx irreversibly (immediate and sleeper fx)
1 in 4

AZT medications can be taken to slow progression of the disease
About _ in _ infants affected from HIV develops AIDs symptoms shortly after birth
corticosteroids, lithium therapy, retinoids, thalidomide, some anticonvulsants, and some hormon therapies
Drugs with known teratogenic effects:
carbon monoxide, lead, mercury, PCB's, and the insecticide DDT
Chemicals with known teratogenic effects:
alcohol, cocaine, heroin
controlled substances with teratogenic effects:
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

02.-2.0/1,000 cases (CDC)
a pattern of mental disabilities and facial abnormalities found in infants with alcoholic mothers. These babies typically have some degree of general intelligence impairment, short attention span, worse language-based memory and poor communication skills, and emotional/behavioral disorders
anoxia; oxygen
one of the most significant birth complications. It can be caused by the umbilical cord being pinched, or because of a placental abruption or placenta previa. Short-term is usually not a problem. However, long-term ______ loss can cause brain damage.
preterm birth
one of the highest risk factors for child development
38 and 40 weeks
Full-term pregnancies are normally btw _______ and _____ weeks
37 weeks
newborns before _______ weeks are considered premature and are at risk of complications, including immature lungs, respiratory distress, and digestive problems.
5.5 and 2.5
low-birth-weight babies weigh less than _____ and very-low-birth-weight babies weigh less than ______

often suffer from respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
Apgar assessment

Scores above 7

Scores below 4
A test given to newborns at 1 minutes after birth and 5 minutes after birth if delivered in the care of a trained health professional. Scores are based on appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration

healthy scores=

critical condition scores=
Failure to Thrive (FTT)
a disorder of impaired growth (lack of weight gain). It can happen in older children who are seriously ill or undernourished, but it is most common and most dangerous during the earliest months and over the first 3 years. Can be organic or nonorganic causes
Epigenesis
the gradual process of increasing differentiation and complexity in an individual due to an interaction between his or her heredity and the environment.
Probabilistic Epigenesis
the probability that a trait, characteristic, or behavior will develop depending on certain conditions in the environment in a reciprocal process,
synaptogenesis
the development of connections (synapses) between neurons through the growth of axon and dendrites, and synaptic pruning, or the process of elimination of unused and unnecessary synapses.
experience-expectant processes

type of brain plasticity
some neurons grow and differentiate rapidly at about the time they can be expected to receive relevant stimulation with overproduction of synapses in expectation that a particular sensory stimulus will occur (production of the depth perception area of the brain shortly after birth)
experience-dependant processes

type of brain plasticity
involve the active formation of new synapses based on individual experience, thus, allowing for unpredictable opportunities for learning
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
An important system that controls the levels of the stress hormone cortisol that are released in the body. The body's release of cortisol as a direct response to acute stress is an adaptive response that typically elevates the individual's ability to respond. However, can become dysregulated and lead to significant stress and anxiety that is harmful to the human system.

Sustained separation or abuse from one's caregiver can lead to hyperactivity in this area. Consistent, emotionally available parenting can promote healthy fx of this area
malnourished children
_______ children are more likely to contract a disease and are more likely to experience severe effects of the disease. May have reduced appetites and absorb less nutrition in a vicious cycle of illness and delayed growth
lower cognitive development;
lower school achievement;
reduced wages;
loss of income due to illness
malnutrition and poverty contribute to:
motor development
involves the development of the capacity for movement, action, and coordination of one's limbs, as well as the development of strength, posture control, balance, and perceptual skills, particularly that made possible by changes in the nervous system and muscles
fine motor development
includes the development of skills involving the smaller muscle groups, including the ability to manipulate small objects, transfer objects from hand to hand, and various hand-eye coordination tasks
gross motor development
includes the development of skills related to simple, large muscle actions, including lifting one's head, rolling over, sitting up, balancing, crawling, and walking.
2 stages of motor development
1st) behavior is movement, including visual exploration, manipulation of objects, and navigations of the environment, and movements are a medium for making inferences about thoughts, perceptions, and intentions that are not directly observable, especially in infants and nonverbal individuals.

2nd) adaptive control of movement is coupled with perception, and provides new opportunities for learning.
predictable pattern
observations of infants and children show that motor development follows a fairly __________
wide-range; "normal"
there is a _________ of timing in achieving milestones, which is considered ________ and cultural and familial expectations and practices can influence these averages
"universal" milestones; motivation
are learned through a child's process of exploring and selecting a wider range of possible behaviors and configurations to meet a goal. _________ to accomplish a task is thus assumed to be the driving force for change in this domain, rather than genetic instructions and biological maturation.
directionality
refers to how body proportions change, and somewhat to improvements in control and motor development
cephalocaudal (head to tail);
and proximodistal (moves from the center of the body outward)
change in body development is usually ______ and ________
brain;
gross motor;
heads, hands, and upper body before lower body;
large muscles before small ones;
trunk/peripheral
____ develops more rapidly, which regulates growth and development and influences basic drives (i.e, hunger & thirst). ______ development usually follows this pattern. Children gain control over the _____ before the _____, and generally, _____ muscles develop before ______. Similarly, regions nears the _____ tend to grow and become more differentiated earlier than those more ______
rhythimical stereotypes
early motor behaviors are marked by ______ or repeated sequences of motions performed with no apparent goal
postural control (ability to maintain an upright orientation in the environment)

locomotion (the ability to maneuver through space)

manual control (ability to manipulate objects)
as infants begin to make gains in movement, they show progress in _____, _____, and ______
SIDS "Back-to-Sleep Public Health campaign (1994)

infants put to sleep on back (not as much practice on fronts)
Rates of hands-and-knees crawling are dropping, which may be associated with the ______
reaching, grasping, and writing
Progression is manual control includes: ______
ulnar-palmar grasp technique
Grasping progresses from an ________, pressing objects against the palm, around 5-6 months
pincer grasp; writing
where the thumb and index finger can work independently of the other fingers, giving infants the fine dexterity useful for eating, manipulating objects, and eventually _______
unique events; actively participating in the episode; if the child talked about the episode with parents
children's memories are more likely to last if they are of ____, if the child was ________, and if the child talked about the episode with ________.
semantic memory (general facts and knowledge) and procedural memory (knowledge of how to perform routines)
over the course of the life span, _______ memory and ______ memory remain relatively stable
first 3 years of life
the most intensive period for the development of speech and language skills is the ____ years of life when the brain is developing most rapidly and with the greatest plasticity
sensitive period
there appears to be a ________ for speech and language development. If infants and young children are not exposed to language and the opportunity for communicative interaction during the earliest months and years, it will be more difficult to learn language later in childhood
precedes
receptive communication and language, or comprehension, almost always _________ expressive languages, or production
6 months

speech is also highly associated with child's environment

infants have biological capacities for language acquisition and human social envs. support these acquisitions
all newborns universally babble all consonants, but by about ___ months of age, infants begin to sort out the speech sounds of the native language of the speakers in their environment, and infant babbles begin to favor the consonants found in that language and drop those not found in that language
SES

high SES hear more than 3-4 times words per week then a family on public assistance

high qaulity nonparental early care and education experiences are also associated with better language outcomes
The ____ of a child's family is highly correlated with the quantity, variety, and quality of words children hear, as well as the amount of child-directed language.
Theory of Mind (ToM)

develops rapidly in early childhood, and is correlated with cog and language abilities, as well as social interaction with adults and older children, including make-beleive play

matacognition
an integrated, coherent understanding of what the mind is, how it works, and why it works that way. Begins first with an understanding that others' thoughts are different from your own and then can include and understanding that all people differ from one-another in thoughts, beliefs, desires, knowledge, perspectives .

a related concept is _______
process of self-realization

Allport (1955)

once established, relatively stable characteristic in adolescence and adulthood
a crucial component of development in infancy, in which the child establishes a sense of his or her own body, a nascent self-identity, and self-esteem. Composed of knowledge and and evaluative components
knowledge component

self-concept
describe aspects of the self that can be used to answer the question, "Who Am I" and include understanding of one's physical and cognitive abilities, the roles that one plays in various social settings, and the goals that one wishes to pursue
evaluative component

self-concept
involves the self-assessment of the individual, and reflect one's self-esteem.
DEP, ANX, and low self-esteem
Discrepancies or conflicts in the conceptualization of the self have been associated with poor outcomes, including:
6 or 7


(labeling occurs much earlier in development)
It is not until age ____ that children show evidence of a sense of gender constancy, or the concept that gender is permanent and immutable
emotional expression, understanding, and regulation

social interactions; interactions that are characterized by synchrony, that are well timed, rhythmic, and appropriate-- are positive, but only make up 30% of infant-caregiver face-to-face interactions. remainder are asynchronous, and allows infant to adjust, learn rules, and repair social interactions
emotional development encompasses:

emotions are a regulator of:
primary emotions
the first emotions that infants express, and appear to be universal and rooted in human biology.
joy, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, and disgust; sometimes shyness and distress are includes as well.
what are the six primary emotions?
secondary emotions
sometimes called self-conscious or other-conscious emotions, involve a evaluation of oneself and increase as the infant becomes self-aware. They do no emerge until the 2nd or 3rd year of life (objective sense of self)
embarrassment, envy, guilt, or shame, but also positive emotions such as pride

btw 18-36 months, children can begin to use language to describe feeling states and to label their own and other emotions
what are the secondary emotions?
readings and recognizing emotional signals
emotional understanding or comprehension begins with what?
facial expressions, sad faces and angry faces, compared to happy
infants show preferences for _______. Preferring to look to look less at _____ faces and more _____ faces compared to happy faces
social referencing


mirror neurons = empathy
the use of others' emotional expressions to interpret ambiguous events, is another important part of social and emotional development
emotional regulation

(improves over childhood)
refers to the ability to adjust one's emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity in order to accomplish one's goals, and includes strategies and abilities to inhibit, enhance, maintain, and modulate emotional arousal
effortful control
a particular aspect of emotion regulation and of temperament, is the ability to withhold a dominant, reactive response in order to execute a more adaptive response and continue a social interaction and engage in planning
temperament
an individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding, particularly to new or familiar environments and situations. Infants are born with a ____ that remains stable throughout their childhood years. (biological and environmental influences)
goodness of fit
the match between a child's temperament and environmental demands, rather than emphasize on temperament itself
activity, regularity, initial reactions, adaptability, intensity, mood, distractibility, persistence and attention span, and sensitivity.

findings concluded three temperament categories (65%)
nine temperament traits in young children

New York Longitudinal Study
easy children (40%)
generally in a positive mood, establish regular routines quickly, and adapt easily to new experiences
difficult children (10%)
often react negatively and cry frequently, have irregular routines, and are slow to accept change
slow-to-warm-up (15%)
have low activity levels, are somewhat negative, and exhibit low mood intensity
Additional temperament theory

Kagan

uninhibited and inhibited
additional theory of temp: temperament classified into two categories:

_____ children are outgoing, extraverted, sociable, and bold. ______ children are timid, subdued, fearful, and shy around unfamiliar people
Additional temperament theory:

Rothbart & Bates

extraversion/surgency
negative affectivity
effortful control (self-regulation)
additional temperament theory, involves 3 broad dimensions:

___: includes positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking (parallels with Kagan's uninhibited)
____: includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort (similar to Kagan's inhibited)
____: includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure.
overall difficulties in adaptation in various contexts, including interpersonal relationships and family and occupational settings

also, hallmark of antisocial behavior and psychiatric disorders, which typically emerge in adolescence when a lack of self-control can lead to the violation of social norms and the personal liberties of others.
In adulthood, lack of self-regulation is associated with:
*dual-processing theory

- Risk behaviors can be explained, at least in part, to the rapid development of reward-seeking areas of the brain (amygdala & orbitofrontal cortex), which mature prior to cognitive control mechanisms that promote effortful control and self-regulation.
describes the pathways by which adolescents tend to engage in high frequency of risk behaviors compared to children and adults.
difficulties repsonding to stressful situations in adolescence and adulthood, as consequence of either heightened or stunted HPA secretion of cortisol.
over time, dysregulation of the HPA axis can results in:
home environment: abuse, maltreatment, and neglect from caregivers have all been shown to substantially impact children's cortisol levels

infants and toddlers placed in poor-quality childcare settings display heightened levels or cortisol throughout the day
two settings that have consistently been found to influence children's stress response systems are the ____ and _____
hyperactivated: individuals display more externalizing disorders, as well antisocial behavior, in which individuals show a propensity to "Act out" aggressively in response to heightened emotions

hypoactivated or stunted: is associated with underdeveloped and passive responses to stress as well as social withdrawal
in adulthood, inability to regulate one's stress is typically associated with two types of reactions:
attachment

early attachment relationships become an internal working model for children, such that it affects their relationships over the course of the life span via perceptions, emotions, and expectations about relationships. One of the most significant developmental tasks and serves as a protective factor for growth and development under adverse conditions (Bowlby) then operationalized by Ainstworth via the "Strange Situations Procedure"
an emotional bond between a child and his primary caregivers that endures over the lifetime. Normal social and emotional development depends on this. Occurs when adults are sensitive and responsive to a child's need overtime
Secure attachment
uses caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. Protests caregiver's departure and seeks closeness and is comforted on return, resuming exploration. May be comforted by a stranger but shows clear preferences for caregiver. Caregiver responds appropriately, promptly, and consistently to child's needs.
avoidant attachment
little affective sharing in play. Shows little or no distress after caregiver departure, and little or no visible response on return, turning away or ignoring with no effort to maintain contact if picked up. Interacts with stranger similarly to caregiver. Child feels there is no attachment and as a results is reblellious and develops a lower self-image and self-esteem. Caregiver gives little or no response to distressed child; discourages crying and encourages independence.
ambivalent/resistant attachment
unable to use caregiver as secure base, wanting closeness before separation occurs. Distressed on separation with ambivalence, anger, reluctance to be comforted by caregiver and resume play on return. Preoccupied with caregiver's availability, seeking contact but resisting angrily when it is offered. Not easily soothed by stranger. Child always feel anxious because caregiver's availability is inconsistent. Caregiver is inconsistent between appropriate and neglectful responses; in general, will only respond after child displays increased attachment behavior
disorganized attachment
exhibits atypical behavior on return such as rocking or freezing. Lack of coherent attachment strategy demonstrated by contradictory, disoriented behaviors such as approaching but with back turned. Caregiver behavior is frightened or frightening behavior, intrusiveness, withdrawal, negativity, role confusion, affective communication errors, and maltreatment; often associated with several forms of abuse toward child
Stage Theory, via Moral Judgement Interview

Lawrence Kohlberg
Encompasses the six stages of moral development, by identifying qualitiatively different forms of moral thinking by individuals in response to moral dilemma vignettes
preconventional thinking, first 2 stages

six stages of moral development
involve the individual progressing from a focus on obedience to authority and avoidance of punishment to a self-interest orientation, in which moral behaviors are views as those that represent the individual's best interest
stage 3: first stage of conventional thinking

six stages of moral development
individuals are concerned with interpersonal accord and conforming to social norms, and judge morality on the actions and their consequences by the extent to which they promote or detract from social approval
stage 4

six stages of moral development
thinking is characterized by a desire to adhere to laws in order to maintain stability and harmony in society.
stage 5: postconventional thinking

six stages of moral development
emphasizes moral principles and values that should guide society through promoting democratic values
stage 6

six stages of moral development
involves moral reasoning bases on abstract, universal ethical principles that guide perceptions of actions as "right" or "wrong".
overt and relational
what are the 2 forms of aggression ?
overt aggression
describes behavior targeted toward inflicting physical harm on others, through striking, pushing, or using hostile and threatening language. Much more common in boys than girls, and children children engaging in this tend to use behaviors to establish dominance over others or to "get one's way".
relational aggression
typically more likely to emerge in girls, and tends to include behaviors focused on manipulating others or damaging their social relationships
difficulties in adjustment, including poor psychological outcomes such as peer rejection, depression, anxiety, as well as school drop out.
children who engage in high levels of aggression towards others are more likely to experience:
prosocial behaviors

associated with less aggressive behaviors in youth
_________ have been associated with a wide range of positive developmental outcomes, including self-regulation, coping, positive emotionality, and positive social adjustment
social competence

home and school/care settings
a critical area of early development that is representative of social influences on individual development. The two contexts that are specifically tasked with socializing the child include the:
at home; at school

social competence
children's interactions with their caregivers serve as the basis for the formation of internal working models, or expectations about others and social relationships

in this setting, youth have the opportunity to interact with peers and adults, and are exposed to interactions that shape both their self-conception of others and their views of others
Transactional Model

Sameroff (1975)

affected in children with delays (MR and autsim)
understand development as a series of continuous reciprocal interactions between the individual and his or her context. Placing equal emphasis on individual and environmental influences in contributing to developmental outcomes, this model account for the myriad social influences that help to shape changes in he individual over time.
Infancy (B to 18 months)

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust

(feeding)
Early Childhood (2-3 years)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy and failure results in feelings of shame and doubt

(toilet training)
Preschool (3-5 years)

Initiative vs. guilt
children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

(exploration)
School age (6-11 years)

Industry vs. inferiority

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to sense of competence, whereas failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self

(school)
Adolescence (12-18 years)

Identity vs. role confusion

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself, whereas failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self

(social relationships)
Young adulthood (19 to 40 years)

Intimacy vs isolation

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, whereas failure leads to loneliness and isolation

(relationships)
Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years)

Generativity vs. stagnation

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, whereas failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

(work and parenthood)
Maturity (65 to death)

Ego Integrity vs despair

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
older adults needs to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to wisdom, whereas failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair
gender or sex segregation
The tendency of children to associate with others of the same sex. Appears to be fairly universal, beginning at about age 2 or 3 and becomes prominent after age 3
girls = smaller groups; boys =larger groups
_____ tend to play in ______groups, in closer proximity to adults, and with more cooperative group dynamics; ____ tend to play in larger groups, farther away from adults, and with more rough and tumble play and with more competition
adolescence
by _______ there is increasingly more contact with opposite sex friends, including an increase in nonromantic friendship with other-sex peers
gender socialization or social norms
these are conveyed to children concerning characteristics associated with being male or female, may contribute to observed gender differences in children's emotional style and interactive style. Adults may convey different massages to boys and girls (skills, achievement, appropriate activities i.e., boys dont wear pink)
physical aggression


however, there is much overlap between boys and girls in all areas than there are differences
found to be higher in boys than in girls, and some aspects of cognitive abilities, with boys found to be stronger in special abilities and girls found to be stronger in verbal skills
lows educational attainment, low income levels, no religious affiliation, a child before marriage, divorced parents, and marriage at a young age
What factors are associated with higher rates of divorce?
psychological disorders such as clinical depression, sleep disorders, and alcoholism
What are divorcees at a higher risk of?
academic difficulties, demonstrate both externalized and internalized problems, be less socially adjusted, initiate sexual activity at an early age, drop out of school, take drugs, have antisocial peers, have low self-esteem, and have trouble in intimate relationships

however, the majority do not have significant adjustment problems
children of divorce suffer from:
Same-sex parenting
Little differences have been found in adjustment in children of homosexual and heterosexual couples.

No differences in mental health, cog, or emotional fx among homosexual parents
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Organizations such as __________ have expressed their support for same-sex unions and civil marriage and cited evidence for the lack of differences in children's development in same or different-gendered parents
better health, higher educational attainment, are younger, and are more likely to work outside the home than grandparents who move in with their children, but those who are full-time caregivers of grandchildren are at higher risks of depression, stress, and health problems
Grandparents who take in grandchildren have:

rates have been increasing (longevity, divorce, ado pregnancy and parental drug use)
U.S
The _____ has the highest teen pregnancy and birth rates of any industrialized nation despite marked decline since the 1990w
more likely to become teen parents themselves, perpetuating this intergenerational cycle. Adolescents mothers who remain in school and who delay subsequent childbearing fare much better than mother who drop out or have additional children spaced close together
children of teenage mothers:
21 years in 2001 to 25.2 in 2005
The average age at which women give birth for the first time increased from
more physical energy, fewer medical problems during pregnancy and birth, and decreased likelihood of building up expectations for children;

parents who have more to consider career and family goals, matuirty, and the benefit in their experiences to engage in more competent parenting, and more established careers, higher salaries for childrearing expenses

mixed emotions and romantic illusions about having and raising a child (all)

many couples report a decreases in marital satisfaction after the birth of an infant
Advantages of having kids in 20s

; 30s
to provide children with cognitive and social-emotional skills, reinforce cultural tradtions, and develop literacy.
What are the primary aims of education?
positive social behaviors and cognitive and literacy competence
Children who enter school with skills such as _____ and ____ tend to perform better in kindergarten
middle or junior high school
After kindergarten the next most important transition occurs during:

this transition occurs around the same time as many other changes in the individual's life (puberty, formal operational thought) and is correlated with students' reported declines in school satisfaction, motivation, and self-esteem, more symptoms of depression, and lower grades and participation in extracurricular activities.