Chapter 32

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betty friedan

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Friedan, Betty (1921– ), U.S. feminist and writer. She wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963), which presented femininity as an artificial construct and traced the ways in which U.S. women are socialized to become mothers and housewives. In 1966, she founded the National Organization for Women, serving as its president until 1970. Other works: The Second Stage (1981) and The Fountain of Age (1993).

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equal pay act

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The Equal Pay Act 1970 is an Act of the United Kingdom Parliament which prohibits any less favourable treatment between men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. It was passed by Parliament in the aftermath of the 1968 Ford sewing machinists strike[1][2][3][4] and came into force on 29 December 1975. The term pay is interpreted in a broad sense to include, on top of wages, things like holidays, pension rights, company perks and some kinds of bonuses. The legislation has been amended on a number of recent occasions to incorporate a simplified approach under European Union law that is common to all member states.

The act has been criticised as it fails to address the gap between ethnic minorities (Black and Asian) and white workers. The gap between ethnic minorities and white workers is much higher than that of men and women.

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national organization for women

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The National Organization for Women (NOW) is the largest feminist organization in the United States. It was founded in 1966 and has a membership of 500,000 contributing members. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia.[3]

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gloria steinem

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Steinem, Gloria (1934– ), U.S. social reformer and journalist. A women's rights activist, she cofounded the National Women's Political Caucus 1971 and cofounded Ms. magazine in 1972 and served as its editor until 1987. Her works include Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions (1983) and Revolution from Within (1992).

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national womens political caucus

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The National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) is a national bipartisan grassroots organization in the United States dedicated to recruiting, training, and supporting women who seek elected and appointed offices.[1]

NWPC was founded in 1971 by Bella Abzug, Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, Betty Friedan, Myrlie Evers, several congresswomen, heads of national organizations, and others who shared the vision of gender equality including Dolores Delahanty of Kentucky and writer and journalist Letty Cottin Pogrebin. They established three main issues: reproductive freedom, affordable childcare, and passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. Also important are addressing male–female income disparity in the United States and diversity at the decision-making levels.

The current president of the NWPC is Lulu Flores, an attorney and Of Counsel to Hendler Law, P.C. of Austin, Texas. One of her clients is the Mexican American Bar Association of Texas; she serves as their Legislative Coordinator during legislative sessions. She formerly served as Assistant Director for Intergovernmental Affairs of the Railroad Commission of Texas (1996-2001) and as Assistant Director for the Alternative Fuels Division of the Railroad Commission of Texas (1992-1996). Prior to working with the Railroad Commission, she was Director for Governmental Affairs for the State Bar of Texas from 1986-1991. From 1978-1980 and 1981-1986, Lulu was Chief of Staff to the first Hispanic woman elected to the Texas House of Representatives, the late Rep. Irma Rangel. Flores has served in various capacities on the NWPC-Texas state board. Prior to joining the Caucus, Lulu helped found the Texas Hispanic Women's PAC, which raised money for Hispanic pro-choice women candidates for elective and appointed office

The National Women’s Political Caucus organizes campaign workshops across the country to teach the nuts and bolts of running a successful candidacy at all levels of government. The Caucus Political Planning Committee vets women candidates for endorsement and the political action committee raises money to support endorsed candidates with campaign contributions. The Caucus also offers workshops on political appointments and collaborates with other women’s political organizations to promote good women candidates for gubernatorial and presidential appointments to key posts within the government.

NWPC has local caucuses in communities across the country to help identify candidates, needs and issues specific to their state or county.

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education amendments act

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The Elementary Education Act 1870, commonly known as Forster's Education Act, set the framework for schooling of all children between ages 5 and 12 in England and Wales. It was drafted by William Forster, a Liberal MP, and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League, although not entirely to their requirements.

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phyllis schlafly

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Phyllis McAlpin Stewart Schlafly ( /ˈfɪlɪs ˈʃlæfli/; born August 15, 1924) is an American politically conservative activist and author who founded the Eagle Forum. She is known for her opposition to feminist ideas and for her ongoing campaign against the proposed Equal Rights Amendment. Her self-published book, A Choice, Not An Echo, was published in 1964 from her home in Alton, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from her native St. Louis. She formed Pere Marquette Publishers company. She has co-authored books on national defense and was highly critical of arms-control agreements with the former Soviet Union.[2]

Schlafly founded the Eagle Forum in the 1970s and the Eagle Forum Education & Legal Defense Fund, St. Louis. As of 2010, she is still the president of the organizations, and also has a presence on the lecture circuit. Since 1967, she has published a newsletter, the

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bella abzug

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Bella Savitsky Abzug (July 24, 1920 – March 31, 1998) was an American lawyer, Congresswoman, social activist and a leader of the Women's Movement. In 1971 Abzug joined other leading feminists such as Gloria Steinem and Betty Friedan to found the National Women's Political Caucus. She famously declared "This woman’s place is in the House—the House of Representatives" in her successful 1970 campaign to join that body. She was later appointed to chair the National Commission on the Observance of International Women's Year and to plan the 1977 National Women's Conference by President Gerald Ford and led President Jimmy Carter's commission on women.

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shirley chisholm

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Shirley Anita St. Hill Chisholm (November 30, 1924 – January 1, 2005) was an American politician, educator, and author.[3] She was a Congresswoman, representing New York's 12th Congressional District for seven terms from 1969 to 1983. In 1968, she became the first black woman elected to Congress.[4] On January 25, 1972, she became the first major-party black candidate for President of the United States and the first woman to run for the Democratic presidential nomination (Margaret Chase Smith had previously run for the Republican presidential nomination).[4] She received 152 first-ballot votes at the 1972 Democratic National Convention.[4][5]

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cesar chevaz

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a ruler

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dolores huerta

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Dolores C. Huerta (born April 10, 1930) is the co-founder and First Vice President Emeritus of the United Farm Workers of America, AFL-CIO (UFW), and a member of the Democratic Socialists of America.

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la huelga

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place

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united farm workers

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The United Farm Workers of America (UFWA) (Spanish: Unión de Campesinos) is a labor union created from the merging of two groups, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by Filipino organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) led by César Chávez. This union changed from a workers' rights organization that helped workers get unemployment insurance to that of a union of farmworkers almost overnight, when the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) went out on strike in support of the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by Larry Itliong in Delano, California who had previously initiated a grape strike on September 8, 1965. The NFWA and the AWOC, recognizing their common goals and methods, and realizing the strengths of coalition formation, jointly formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22, 1966.[1] This organization eventually became the United Farm Workers and launched a boycott of table grapes that, after five years of struggle, finally won a contract with the major grape growers in California.

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reies lopez tijerina

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Reies Lopez Tijerina (born September 21, 1926 near Falls City, Texas) led a struggle in the 1960s and 1970s to restore New Mexican land grants to the descendants of their Spanish colonial and Mexican owners. As a vocal spokesman for the rights of Hispanics and Mexican Americans, he became a major figure of the early Chicano Movement (although he prefers "Indohispano" as a name for his people). As an activist, he worked in community education and organization, media relations, and land reclamations. He became famous internationally for his 1967 armed raid on the Tierra Amarilla courthouse.

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alianza federal de mercedes

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Alianza Federal de Mercedes,[1] which in English translates to Federal Land Grant Alliance, was a group led by Reies Tijerina based in New Mexico in the 1960s that fought for the land rights of Chicano New Mexicans.[2][3]

“ Justice is Our Creed and the Land is Our Heritage. — Alianza Federal de Mercedes's slogan[2] ”
The Alianza had affiliates in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico and San Luis, Colorado.

Hispanic residents had settled in the areas of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado centuries before. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States Congress ostensibly guaranteed that current residents would retain their land rights after the New Mexico territory was transferred to U.S. ownership. However, by the 1960s, many traditional shepherds had lost their land to cattle ranchers and the U.S. Forestry Service.

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brown berets

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The Brown Berets is a Chicano nationalist activist group of young Mexican Americans that emerged during the Chicano Movement in the late 1960s and remains active to the present day. The group was seen as part of the Third Movement for Liberation. The Brown Berets focus on community organizing against police brutality and advocate for educational equality. Several groups have been quite active since the passage of California Proposition 187. Units exist in most sections of California and a few in other southwestern states.

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rodolfo gonzales

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Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzáles (June 18, 1928 – April 12, 2005) was a Mexican American[1] boxer, poet, and political activist.[2] He convened the first-ever Chicano youth conference in March 1969, which was attended by many future Chicano activists and artists.[3] The conference also promulgated the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, a manifesto demanding self-determination for Chicanos.[4] As an early figure of the movement for the equal rights of Mexican Americans, he is often considered one of the founders of the Chicano Movement.[5]

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crusade for justice

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a cruesade

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mexican american youth organization

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The Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO) is a civil rights organization formed in 1967 in San Antonio, Texas, USA to fight for Mexican-American rights. The creators of MAYO, Los Cinco, consisted of José Ángel Gutiérrez, Willie Velásquez, Mario Compean, Ignacio Pérez, and Juan Patlán. MAYO and its political organization, Raza Unida Party, played an important part in Texas history during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. They were a part of the larger Chicano movement in the United States, and played a role in bringing about civil rights for Mexican-Americans.

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jose angel gutierrez

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José Angel Gutiérrez, is an attorney and professor at the University of Texas at Arlington in the United States. He was a founding member of the Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO) in San Antonio in 1967, and a founding member and past president of the Raza Unida Party, a Mexican-American third party movement that supported candidates for elective office in Texas, California, and other areas of the Southwestern and Midwestern United States.

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la raza unida party

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The Raza Unida Party (RUP) (Spanish: Partido de la Raza Unida) is a United States third political party. Its official name is Partido Nacional de La Raza Unida. The party was termed La Raza in reference to the Mestizo people.[1] The "La Raza Unida Party" sought better housing, job, and educational opportunities for Mexican-Americans. "Partido de la Raza Unida" literally translates as "Party of the People." Although "raza" can be translated to "race", in this context, "raza" is an endearment term in Spanish meaning "my people".

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american indian movement

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The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American activist organization in the United States. In October 1973 the American Indian Movement gathered its forces from across the country onto the Trail of Broken Treaties, championing Indian unity. The national AIM agenda focused on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty. Thousands of volunteers emerged from reservations and cities alike, responding to the call within themselves that the time had come to take a stand against centuries of mismanaged U.S. government trust. Students in higher education, Indians in the ministry, Indians living in poverty and a smattering of bureaucrats and sympathetic public officials responded. AIM recruitment offices came to life and new chapters opened so fast the speed of the responses overtook the new AIM national office’s ability to record the list. The speed and intensity of AIM’s growth authenticated the desire to right wrongs, and there were many of them.

AIM gained international press when it seized the Bureau of Indian Affairs headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1972, and in 1973 had a standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. AIM was founded in 1968 by Dennis Banks, George Mitchell, Herb Powless, Clyde Bellecourt, Harold Goodsky, Eddie Benton-Banai, and a number of others in Minneapolis' Native American community.[1] Russell Means was another early leader. The early organization was formed to address various issues concerning the Native American community including poverty, housing, treaty issues, and police harassment.[2] From its beginnings in Minnesota, AIM soon attracted members from across the United States (and Canada). It was also involved in the Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton). Charles Deegan Sr. was involved with the AIM patrol.

In the decades since AIM's founding, the group has led protests advocating indigenous American interests, inspired cultural renewal, monitored police activities, and coordinated employment programs in cities and in rural reservation communities across the United States. AIM has often supported indigenous interests outside the United States as well. By 1993 AIM had split into two main factions, with the AIM-Grand Governing Council based in Minneapolis and affirming its right to use the name and trademarks for affiliated chapters.

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russell means

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Russell Charles Means (born November 10, 1939) is an Oglala Sioux activist for the rights of Native American people. He is a prominent member of the American Indian Movement (AIM) having joined the organisation in 1968. Means has also pursued careers in politics, acting, and music.

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ed roberts

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Ed Roberts (activist) (1939–1995), leader of the disability rights movement
Ed Roberts (computer engineer) (1941–2010), American computer pioneer
Ed Roberts (poet) (born 1958), American poet, writer and publisher

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rehabilitation act

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The U.S. Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial assistance, in Federal employment, and in the employment practices of Federal contractors. The standards for determining employment discrimination under the Rehabilitation Act are the same as those used in title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act.[1]

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education for all handicapped children act

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The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (sometimes referred to using the acronyms EAHCA or EHA, or Public Law (PL) 94-142) was enacted by the United States Congress in 1975. This act required all public schools accepting federal funds to provide equal access to education for children with physical and mental disabilities. Public schools were required to evaluate handicapped students and create an educational plan with parent input that would emulate as closely as possible the educational experience of non-disabled students.

The act also required that school districts provide administrative procedures so that parents of disabled children could dispute decisions made about their children’s education. Once the administrative efforts were exhausted, parents were then authorized to seek judicial review of the administration’s decision. Prior to the enactment of EHA, parents could take their disputes straight to the judiciary under the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The mandatory system of dispute resolution created by EHA was an effort to alleviate the financial burden created by litigation pursuant to the Rehabilitation Act.

EHA was revised and renamed as Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990.

Functional Relationship Between EHA, The Rehabilitation Act, and the Equal Protection Clause

The Supreme Court decided that EHA would be the exclusive remedy for handicapped students asserting their right to equal access to public education in Smith v. Robinson, 468 U.S. 992 (1984). The petitioner, Tommy Smith, was an eight year old student who HAD from cerebral palsy. The school district in Cumberland, Rhode Island originally agreed to subsidize Tommy’s education by placing him in a program for special needs children at the Emma Pendleton Bradley Hospital. The school district later decided to remove Tommy from that program and send him to the Rhode Island Division of Mental Health, Retardation and Hospitals, which was severely understaffed and under funded. This transfer would have constructively terminated Tommy’s public education. Tommy’s parents appealed the school district’s decision through the administrative process created by EAHCA. Once the administrative process was exhausted, the Smiths sought judicial review pursuant to the EAHCA, § 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, and 42 U.S.C. § 1983.

The United States Supreme Court held that the administrative process created by EHA was the exclusive remedy for handicapped students asserting their right to equal access to education. "Allowing a plaintiff to circumvent the EHA administrative remedies would be inconsistent with Congress’ carefully tailored scheme…We conclude, therefore, that where the EHA is available to a handicapped child asserting a right to a free appropriate public education, based either on the EHA or on the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the EHA is the exclusive avenue through which the child and his parents or guardian can pursue their claim." The court based its decision on a contextual analysis of the applicable statutes. To permit a student to rely on § 504 or the § 1983 would be to effectively eliminate the EHA, because it would circumvent the EHA’s requirement that petitioners first exhaust their administrative options before seeking judicial intervention.

In the face of this Supreme Court decision, the United States Congress passed an amendment to the EHA which explicitly over-ruled the Supreme Court's decision in two ways: (1) The amended law allowed parents to collect attorney's fees upon winning a case against the school. (2) The amended law permitted parents to bring a lawsuit under either EHA, § 504, or § 1983 once the administrative remedies had been exhausted.

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american association of retired persons

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AARP, formerly the American Association of Retired Persons, is a United States-based non-governmental organization and interest group, founded by Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus in 1958 and based in Washington, D.C. According to its mission statement,[1] it is "a nonprofit, nonpartisan membership organization for people age 50 and over ... dedicated to enhancing quality of life for all as we age," which "provides a wide range of unique benefits, special products, and services for our members."

AARP operates as a non-profit advocate for its members and as one of the most powerful lobbying groups in the United States. The vision of its charitable affiliate, the AARP Foundation, is "A country that is free of poverty where no older person feels vulnerable." AARP does not market endorsed insurance, other financial products, travel or discounts. A separate subsidiary provides quality control over the products and services made available by AARP-endorsed providers. AARP claims over 40 million members,[2] making it one of the largest membership organizations in the United States.

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gray panthers

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Gray Panthers is an organization in the United States founded by Maggie Kuhn in 1970, in response to her forced retirement at age 65. The organization supports a single-payer system of health-care, as well as an increase in welfare payments, supporting peace activity, life-long public education, the rights of workers, reproductive rights, abolition of the death penalty, legalization of same-sex marriage, the legalization of medical marijuana, and environmental activities through advocacy, education and action.[1]

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maggie kuhn

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Maggie Kuhn (August 3, 1905 - April 22, 1995) was an American activist known for founding the Gray Panthers movement in 1971 after being forced into retirement by the Presbyterian Church. The Gray Panthers became known for advocating nursing home reform and fighting ageism, claiming that "old people and women constitute America's biggest untapped and undervalued human energy source." She also dedicated her life to fighting for human rights, social and economic justice, global peace, integration, and an understanding of mental health issues. For decades she combined her activism with caring for her disabled mother and a brother who suffered from mental illness.

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older americans act

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The Older Americans Act of 1965 (Pub.L. 89-73, 79 Stat. 218, July 14, 1965) was the first federal level initiative aimed at providing comprehensive services for older adults. It created the National Aging Network comprising the Administration on Aging on the federal level, State Units on Aging, and Area Agencies on Aging at the local level.[1] The network provides funding - based primarily on the percentage of an area's population 60 and older - for nutrition and supportive home and community-based services, disease prevention/health promotion services, elder rights programs, the National Family Caregiver Support Program, and the Native American Caregiver Support Program.[2]

In 2006 congress reauthorized the act in its entirety, effective through FY 2011.[3]

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children's defense fund

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The Children's Defense Fund is an American child advocacy and research group, founded in 1973 by Marian Wright Edelman. Its motto Leave No Child Behind reflects its mission to advocate on behalf of children. The organization is supported by private donations.

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marian wright edelman

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Edelman, Marian Wright (1939– ), U.S. human rights activist. She was founder 1972 and president of the Children's Defense Fund. She wrote A Letter to My Children and Yours (1992).

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generation gap

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differences of outlook or opinion between people of different generations.

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counterculture

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a way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social norm : the idealists of the 60s counterculture.

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pop art

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noun
art based on modern popular culture and the mass media, esp. as a critical or ironic comment on traditional fine art values.
The term is applied specifically to the works, largely from the mid 1950s and 1960s, of a group of artists including Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, and Jasper Johns, who used images from comic books, advertisements, consumer products, television, and the movies.

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mario savio

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Mario Savio (December 8, 1942 – November 6, 1996) was an American political activist and a key member in the Berkeley Free Speech Movement. He is most famous for his passionate speeches, especially his "put your bodies upon the gears" address given at Sproul Hall, University of California, Berkeley on December 2, 1964.

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timothy leary

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Leary, Timothy (Francis) (1920–96), U.S. psychologist. After experimenting with consciousness-altering drugs, including LSD, he was dismissed from his teaching job at Harvard University in 1963 and became a figurehead for the hippie drug culture

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british invasion

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The British Invasion is a term used to describe the large number of rock and roll, beat, rock and pop performers from the United Kingdom who became popular in the United States during the period from 1964 through 1966.[1]

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joan baez

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Baez, Joan (1941– ), U.S. folk singer and civil rights activist. She is best known for her performances at civil rights demonstrations in the early 1960s. Notable albums: Any Day Now (1968) and Diamonds and Rust (1975).

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bob dylan

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Dylan, Bob (1941– ), U.S. singer and songwriter; born Robert Allen Zimmerman. The leader of an urban folk-music revival in the 1960s, he became known for political and protest songs, such as “The Times They Are A-Changin” (1964). Notable albums: Highway 61 Revisited (1965) and Blood on the Tracks (1975).

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james brown

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Brown, James (1928– ), U.S. soul and funk singer and songwriter. In the 1960s he played a leading role in the development of funk with songs such as "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag” (1

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aretha franklin

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Franklin, Aretha (1942– ), U.S. soul and gospel singer. She became a hit with the album I Never Loved a Man (the Way I Love You) (1967) and went on to record more than 30 albums, including the live gospel set Amazing Grace (1972) and A Rose Is Still a Rose (1998).

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woodstock

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a small town in southwestern New York, near Albany. It gave its name in the summer of 1969 to a huge rock music festival held about 60 miles (96 km) to the southwest.