Chapter 3.1

Front 1

- a theory stating that people define themselves by the groups to which they belong or have an emotional attachment

Back 1

Social Identity Theory

Back 2

The Social Self

Front 3

This process of favoring one’s in-group happens in three stages:

Back 3

1. Social Categorization

2. Social Identification

3. Social Comparison

Front 4

- People first categorize themselves and others into social groups based on external or internal criteria.- is the process through which we group individuals based upon social confirmation.- The “Big Three” are sex, race, and age, but numerous other dimensions are categorized as well, such as social status, occupation, and even perceptually ambiguous categories such as sexual orientation.

Back 4

Social Categorization

Front 5

- Then people identify with a group, invest emotionally, and change their behavior to some extent because of their membership.

Back 5

Social Identification

Front 6

- people compare their groups to others in order to acquire esteem for their identified membership. This process leads to the maximization of similarities within groups and the differences between groups

Back 6

Social Comparison

Front 7

- is the idea that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others. The theory was developed in 1954 by psychologist Leon Festinger.

Back 7

Social Comparison theory

Front 8

- are often the things we choose to define us throughout our lives - team affiliation, musical tastes, style.

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Personal Identity markers

Front 9

- refers to people's self-categorizations in relation to their group memberships (the “we”). These categorizations are often assigned to us or something we are born into.

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Social identity

Front 10

- is a term applied to the cultural or ethnic bias- whether conscious or unconscious—in which an individual view the world from the perspective of his or her own group, establishing the in-group as archetypal and rating all other groups with reference to this ideal

Back 10

Ethnocentrism

Front 11

- explains how people develop their identities. Its main argument is that people develop their identity through interaction with society. - was developed by the social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s. Example: include religion, sport, nation, and ethnicity affiliations that help you to construct your identity.

Back 11

Social identity theory

Front 12

- refers to the degree to which interpersonal or intergroup interaction has a stronger effect on your social identity

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The Interpersonal-Intergroup Continuum

Front 13

Tajfel and Turner proposed that an individual’s identity, or sense of the self is influenced both through:

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Interpersonal Interaction

Intergroup Interaction

Front 14

– One-to-one interactions with other individuals

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Interpersonal Interaction

Front 15

– Identification with a large grouping of people, and the interaction of their grouping in turn with other groups.

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Intergroup Interaction

Front 16

- individuals attempt to create a positive idea of their selves. - Thus, the association with one in-group, and distinction from the out–group, is a strategy deployed by individuals to achieve positive distinctiveness.

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Positive Distinctiveness

Front 17

This pursuit of positive distinctiveness while being part of a group usually leads to 3 outcomes:

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1. Mobility

2. Creativity

3. Competition

Front 18

- is a strategy adopted by individuals in cases where boundaries of the group they identify with are permeable. They may perceive that they can achieve greater status by identifying with a different group.

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Mobility

Front 19

- is a strategy deployed by individuals when the boundaries of the in-group are more rigid and the members feel that their status is lower compared to those of the out-group.

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Creativity

Front 20

- results when the boundaries of the ingroup are relatively rigid, and the individuals feel they have the same or higher status than that of similarly located groups. An example is two competing political parties. The two groups compete to have the dominant and more powerful social identity.

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Competition

Front 21

Pros of Social Identity Theory

Back 21

1. Explains Group Philanthropy

2. Explains In-Group Bias

Front 22

– The theory demonstrates why people empathize with and therefore want to help people like them. - A core assumption of the social identity theory is that individuals identify with groups in order to maximize positive distinctiveness. - This helps explain philanthropic acts undertaken by social groups such as food drives, charity, etc. - Since the primary drive behind associating with groups positive distinctiveness, it follows that individuals would want their own group to be perceived in a more positive light than others.

Back 22

Explains Group Philanthropy

Front 23

– The theory can explain why people preference people who look or act like them. - Social identity theory helps explain the formation of in-groups and out-groups, and the bias that accompanies their formation. - An in-group is a social grouping that an individual identifies with. An out-group is all those who are not part of the in-group. - In-group bias is the natural tendency of humans to favor those within the same in-group. - For instance, members of the stonemasons, elite schools, or even secret fraternity societies might favor those belonging to their in-group when networking for business or hiring for jobs.

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Explains In-Group Bias

Front 24

Cons of Social Identity Theory

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1. Poor Predictive Power

2. Fails to Explain Group Harmony

Front 25

- It explains events, but doesn’t really make predictions about the future (Brown, 2000).- Social identity theory has been criticized as being more explanatory than predictive in nature.- This means that while the theory can explain existing phenomena, it is not always very accurate in predicting future behavior (Brown, 2000).

- It explains events, but doesn’t really make predictions about the future (Brown, 2000).- Social identity theory has been criticized as being more explanatory than predictive in nature.- This means that while the theory can explain existing phenomena, it is not always very accurate in predicting future behavior (Brown, 2000).

- It explains events, but doesn’t really make predictions about the future (Brown, 2000).- Social identity theory has been criticized as being more explanatory than predictive in nature.- This means that while the theory can explain existing phenomena, it is not always very accurate in predicting future behavior (Brown, 2000).

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Poor Predictive Power

Front 26

– In a liberal multicultural world order, there is a lot of group harmony that isn’t explained by this theory. - According to social identity theory, when groups have rigid boundaries and similar social status, they are likely to engage in conflict and competition.

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Fails to Explain Group Harmony

Front 27

- the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us

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Perception

Front 28

- the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring other information

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Selective Attention

Front 29

- the processing of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming information

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Confirmation bias

Front 30

Type of Confirmation Bias

Back 30

1. Biased Attention

2. Biased interpretation

3. Biased memory

Front 31

– selectively focus on information that confirms our views while ignoring or discounting data that doesn’t.

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Biased Attention

Front 32

– consciously interpret information in a way that confirms our beliefs.

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Biased interpretation

Front 33

– selectively remember information that supports our views while forgetting or discounting information that doesn’t.

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Biased memory

Front 34

- organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory.

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Categorical Thinking

Front 35

– response error coded such that positive values reflect a bias in the direction of the prototypical color of the category.

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Categorical Bias

Front 36

– categorical means absolute, unconditional

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Categorical Person

Front 37

- the process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category. – fixed general image or set of characteristics that a lot of people believe represent a particular type of person or thing. - usually defined as beliefs about groups, prejudice as evaluation of or attitude toward a group, and discrimination as behavior that systematically advantages or disadvantages a group.

Back 37

Stereotyping

Front 38

- Social identity is a comparative process, and the comparison begins by categorizing people into distinct groups

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Categorization

Front 39

- to simplify the comparison process, we tend to think that people within each group are very similar to each other.

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Homogenization

Front 40

- Along with categorizing and homogenizing people, we tend to assign more favorable characteristics to people in our groups than to people in other groups.

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Differentiation

Front 41

- an individual’s concern about confirming a negative stereotype about his or her group. - occurs because members of a stereotyped group anxiously try to avoid confirming the undesirable trait and try to push the negative image from their mind.

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Stereotype Threat

Front 42

– decision makers rely on stereotypes to establish notions of the “ideal” person in specific roles.- lays the foundation for discriminatory attitude and behavior.- is implicit, automatic, and unintentional.

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Unintentional (systemic) discrimination

Front 43

- people hold unfounded negative attitudes toward people belonging to a particular stereotyped group. - deliberately puts the target person at an unfair disadvantage.

Back 43

Intentional discrimination or prejudice

Front 44

- the perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behavior or event is caused largely by internal or external factors

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Attribution process

Front 45

– involves forming beliefs about the causes of behavior or events.

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Attribution

Front 46

– individual tendency to attribute other actions to their character or personality, while attributing their behavior to external situational factors outside their control.

Back 46

Attribution Errors

Front 47

- the tendency to attribute our favorable outcomes to internal factors and our failures to external factors.

Back 47

Self-Serving Bias

Front 48

– also called correspondence bias, the tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behavior. - is the tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person’s behavior and to discount or ignore external causes of their behavior.

Back 48

Fundamental Attribution Error

Front 49

- a perspective of organizational behavior that focuses on building positive qualities and traits within individuals or institutions as opposed to focusing on what is wrong with them. - the study and application of positively oriented human resource strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today's workplace - suggests that focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being.

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Positive Organizational Behavior

Front 50

- a perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, colors our perception of other characteristics of that person.

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Halo Effect

Front 51

– also called similar-to-me effect, a perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own.

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False-Consensus Effect

Front 52

- a perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them.

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Primacy Effect

Front 53

- a perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates our perception of others; common when people make a decision involving complex information

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Recency Effect

Front 54

- is a framework for understanding conscious and unconscious bias that can help increase self-awareness and our understanding of others. - a model of mutual understanding that encourages disclosure and feedback to increase our own open area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown areas. - relies on direct conversations about ourselves and others.

Back 54

Johari Window

Front 55

- information about you that is known both to you and to others.

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The open area

Front 56

- information that is known to others but not to you.

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The blind area

Front 57

- information known to you but unknown to others

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The hidden area.

Front 58

- includes your values, beliefs, and experiences that are buried so deeply that neither you nor others are aware of them

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The unknown area

Front 59

– open area increases; reduces blind area.

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Feedback

Front 60

- more indirect yet potentially powerful, approach to improving self-awareness and mutual understanding; any activity in which people engage in valued (meaningful, not trivial) activities.

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Meaningful Interaction

Front 61

- a theory stating that the more we interact with someone, the less prejudiced or perceptually biased we will be against that person- states that under certain conditions, people who interact with each other will be less perceptually biased because they have a more personal understanding of the other person and their group.

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Contact hypothesis

Front 62

- a person’s understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others. - This perceptual experience is cognitive, emotional, and experiential.

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Empathy

Front 63

- an individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to process complex cross-cultural information

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Global mindset

Front 64

- knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us- explanation how something works- overarching term for any sort of concept, framework, or world view that you carry around.

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Mental Models