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116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Both _____ and _____ are higher in children, most likely as compensation for the lower stroke volume and cardiac output relative to body mass. Additionally _____ concentration is lower in children than in adults
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resting heart rate and exercise heart rate
hemoglobin |
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_______ decreases by approximately 6 to 10 bpm per decade with advancing age
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Max HR
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______ remains relatively unchanged with advancing age
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Resting stroke volume
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______ decreases with advancing age.
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Max stroke volume
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Decreases in both maximal heart rate and stroke volume cause a sighnificant decline in _______ with age. Max heart rate and stroke volume are probaly decreased because of
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maximal cardiac output
because of increased stiffness of the left ventricle, causing decreased diastolic filling. |
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_____ at any give submaximal oxygen consumption is lower in adults than in children
Children compensate for this by |
Cardiac output
increased oxygen extraction, which is achieved by increased blood flow through skeletal muscle. |
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Decreased _____ and increased ____ with age can result in elevated systolic and elevated diastolic blood pressures both at rest and during exercise
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Decreased arterial compliance and increased arterial stiffness
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________ decreases with age, resulting in decreased muscle blood flow and oxygen extraction
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Skeletal muscle capillary density
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______ increases with aging, apparently related to increased afterload assoicated with increased peripheral resistance.
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Left ventricular hypertrophy
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_________ both at rest and during exercise decreases with age
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Early left ventricular diastolic function
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The Vo2 max is determined by the capacity of the cardiovascular system to deliver ____ to the working muscles and capacity of the muscles to ___ for oxidative metabolism.
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deliever oxygen
extract oxygen |
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The VO2 max is
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a function of maximal cardiac output and maximal arteriovenous oxygen difference
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The VO2 max may be expressed as
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an absoulte value
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The VO2 max remains relatively ____ throughout childhood and adolescence.
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unchanged
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The VO2 max typically declines by ___ to ___% per decade after age ____. this decline is related to decreases in both ________ and ___________. The rate of decline can be slowed by _________.
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5-15
25 maximal cardiac output maximal arteriovenous oxygen regular physical activity |
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_______ and ______ with aging
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Residual volume increases
vital capacity decreases |
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________ increases with aging, as the lungs lose elastin fibers and elastic recoil.
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Lung compliance increases
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Aging brings a _____ increase in the work of respiratory muscles but a decrease in the ____ of these muscles
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20%
strength |
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A general increase in exercise capacity and absoulute VO2 max (L/min) occurs during _______. This increase is dramatically accelerated during ______, especially in boys, before leveling off after maturity.
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childhood
puberty |
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The large increase in absoulte VO2 max in adolescent boys corresponding to the _____, which results from _________________.
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growth spurt
androgen-induced hypertrophy of the heart and stimulation of red blood cell and hemoglobin production, facilitates oxygen delivery |
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Futhermore, increased skeletal muscle mass associated with male adolescence increases the
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capacity for oxygen extraction
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Despite the large increase in absoulute VO2 max, _______ plateaus in boys and shows a slight decline in girls, during puberty.
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relative VO2 max (mL/Kg/min)
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The VO2 max is not related to _____ in children and preadolescents.
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endurance fitness
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An individual's ________ becomes fixed before adolescence; however, large changes in muscle mass remain possible via the mechanisms of _______.
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total number of muscle fibers
muscle fiber hypertrophy |
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At _____, males exhibit more rapid muscle growth, or ____ than females do.
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adolescence,hypertrophy
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Females do not exhibit disproportionate _____ during adolescence. Adolescent and postadolescent females have approximately ___t0___ less muscle mass compared to males, both because of smaller stature and because of a smaller average muscle fiber size.
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30-60%
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A decline in muscle mass or ____ occurs with _____ because of a progressive decrease in the number and size of muscle fibers. This sarcopenia directly contributes to an ________.
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atrophy
age-related decline in muscle strength |
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_______are particularly susceptible to atrophy in aging humans.
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Fast-twitch fibers
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________ typically peaks in the mid-twenties for both sexes and remains fairly stable throught the mid-thirties
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muscle strength
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muscle stength ____ by approximatly 15% per decade in teh fifth, sixth, and seventh decades by approimatly ____ per decade
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declines
30% |
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Bone is ______ composed of cells embedded in an extra-cellular organic matrix impregnated wtih an inorganic component. This inorganic component, primarly calcium phosphate crystals called ____, muakes up approximately 65% of the dry weight of bone.
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connective tissue
hydroxyapatite |
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Mature bone continuously undergoes a process called ___, in which bone matrix is reabsorbed and replaced by new matrix
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bone remodeling
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This process becomes unbalanced with
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advancing age such that bone formation does not keep pace wtih reabsorbtion.
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The human skeleton begins to develop in the embryo as the process of ________ gradually replaces the cartilage with bone tissue.
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endochondral ossification
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In long bones, the ossification begins in the ____. Secondary ossification occurs at the ends of th elong bone, or ____ and remains separated from teh primary ossification by _______.
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diaphysis
epiphysis epiphyseal plates |
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The epiphyseal plates are regions of _____ that continue to produce chondrocytes tha tundergo ossifciation adn thereby add bone tissue to the shaft of the bone.
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cartilage
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Through this process long bones continue to grow in length until
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the epiphyseal plates close in response to hormonal changes at approximately 16 to 18 years of age following the adolescent growth spurt
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Bone mass reaches its peak for both men and women by 25 to 30 years of age. Problems with bone growth can develop in children as a result of ____, because the epiphysis is not yet united with the bone shaft.
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strenuous exercise
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____ can occur with overuse.
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Epiphysitis
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____ can pass through the epiphyseal plate, desrupting normal bone growth
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fractures
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Osteoporosis
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condition charactrized by a decrease in bone mass and bone density, producing bone porosity and fragility.
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The efficiency of ___ appears to devline with age, resultin gin the inability of bone synthesis to keep pace with bone reabsorption. In women, this loss is accelerated immediately after ____.
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osteoblasts
menopause |
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As a result ______ are more susceptible to bone fracutures, which are significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the elderly.
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older individuals
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____ are the most common adn accoutn for a large shart of the disability, death and medical costs associtated with falls.
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hip fractures
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Additionaly both ___ and ___ are not uncommon amoung those with osteoporosis
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wrist and vertebral fractures
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The age at which bone loss begins and the rate at which it occurs ___ greatly between men and women
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vary
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Normally ___ begin to lose bone mass by age 65; overall bone mineral content is pproximately 10% lower than the peak value.
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men
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Bone loss in ____ may begin as early as age 30 to 35, and the rate of bone loss is greatly accelerated following menopause. By age ___ overall bone mineral content in women is approximately 15% to 20% lower than the peak value
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women
65 |
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Some studies suggest that the _______ mineral content in men is proportional to the loss of ____ with aging. Women, howerver, exhibit a _____ loss of bone tissue after menopause.
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overall age-related loss of bone
lean body tissue disproportionate |
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_______ has been shown to be effective in attenuating this bone loss in postmenopausal women
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Estrogen replacement
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With osteoporosis susceptibility to fracture from minor trauma ____. Osteoporotic conditions affecting older adults are classified as ___ or _____
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increases
type 1 or type II osteoporosis |
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____ or ______ is the most common and is associated wtih fractures of the vertebrae and distal radius. Approximately 90% of the cases of type 1 osteoporosis occur in _____
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Type I or postmenopausal osteoporosis
women |
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____ or ____ is seen mostly in individuals older than 70 years of age and is meanifested primarily by vertebral and hip fractures. The incididence of type II osteoporosis is also higher in ___ with a female:male ration of approximately 2:1
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Type II or senile osteoporosis
women |
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Risk facors for age-related bone loss
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white or Asian female
thin-boned low peake bone mass family history menopause alchol abuse cigarette smoking sedentary lifestyle lack of calcium chronic steroid use vitamin D deficiency |
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_______ becomes less extensible with age. Aging is associated wtih ___ and increased ____ which comprise much of the connective tissue in the joints of the body.
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connective tissue
degradation and increased cross-linkage of collagen fibers |
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This increases the
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stiffness and decreases the tensile strength of collagen fibers
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______ especially in the spine, occurs with advancing age, perhaps largely because of _____________ causeing the formation the formation of scar tissue, which makes the connective tissue stiff and less reponsive to stress, thus facilitating the loss of flexibility that is seen with aging
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degeneration of joints
trauma to joint cartilage |
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____ decreases with age
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range of motion
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A ______begins during young adulthood that relate to disuse, deterioration of joints, and degeneration of collagen fibers
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progessive loss of flexibility
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____ can severly restrict range of motion.
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Osteoarthritis
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Osteoarthritis occurs primarily in
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areas of the body that receive the greatest mechanical stress, thereby suggesting that it may be caused by repeated trauma rather than by aging
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Balance and postural stability are affected by
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sensory and motor system changes
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___ is one risk factor for falling.
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Poor balance
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_____ in the vestiular, visual, and somatosensory systems result in diminished feedback to the postural centers.
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Age-related
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The ___ may lack the capacity to respond appropriately to disturbances in postural stability.
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muscle effectors
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_____ and ______ are common in the elderly .
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Joint stiffness and loss of flexibility
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Aging is associated with ____________, which comprise much of the connective tissue in the joints. This increases the stiffness adn decreases the tensile strength of collagen fibers.
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degradation adn increaes cross-linkage of collagen
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_____ causes the formation of scar tissue, which makes the connective tissue stiff an dless responsive to stress
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Trauma to joint cartilage
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_____________ may increase flexibility in subjects of all ages.
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Range-of-motion exercises and static stretching
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Performance of tasks requiring ___ improves consistently through out the preadolescent and adolescent years. This improvement results from ____, the associated increases in strength and endurance, the progress of motor learning, and the development of greater coordination
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motor skilss
growth |
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______ decreases with maturation development. An abrupt decrease in reaction time occurs around ___ yrs old followed by a more progressive improvement throughout the remainder of childhood and adolescence.
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Reaction time
8 |
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____ also improves with age
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speed of movement
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Improvement of skill following a practice session increases with age during childhood indicating
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an increases in teh capacity to integrate feedback during learning
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Gender differences in skill performance are ____ before adolescence
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minimal
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During ____ the gap widens. The performance of girls in skills requiring strength and gross motor patterns ___, wherases that of boys continue to _____.
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adolescence
platueaus improve |
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Girls often ______ boys in skills requiring fine motor pattern
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outperform
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Wide individual variation in _____ are found at all ages in both genders
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quantitative skill perfromances
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Many ____ occur with agin that affect _____-
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neurophysiologic changes
affect motor performance |
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What neurophysiologic changes occur with aging that affect motor performance
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decreased visual acuity
hearing loss short-term memory inability to handle several pieces of info stimultaneously decreased reaction time |
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The ability to maintain performance of a motor skill at a givven level throughout middle and older adulthood depends on the
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type of skill is question
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__________________ may be maintained at the level attained as a young adult
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skils requiring accuracy of movement
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Performance of ______________ declines with age
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skills requiring speed and /or strength of movement
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______ of older adults are generally well maintained from younger adulthood. ______ during adulthood result from decreases in range of motion, reaction time, movement time, and coordination.
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movement patterns
decreases in performance |
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Individuals who remain active and continue to practice motor skills can
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minimize the decline in performance that occurs with aging
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___________ generally increases form childhood to early adulthood to between 15% and 20% in males and between 20 and 25% in females. Thereafter, body fat percentage gradually ____ because of increasing fat mass and decreasing muscle mass
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body fat percentage
increases with age |
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In females _____ increases during puberty to approximately 20 to 25% of body mass because of hormonally induced accumulation of fate in the breasts and around the hips
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relative body fat increases
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_______ has reached epidemic proportions and plays a significant role in may diseases, including heart disease, cancer and diabetes
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Abdominal obesity
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Physiological changes associated wtih aging contribut to
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unfavorable changes in body comp
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______ is a primary factor in teh increase of fat mass with age. ______ from physical activity declines with age, adn body fat mass increases when an imbalance occurs between caloric intake and energy expenditure.
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inactivity
Energy expenditure |
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However ______ remains relatively constant.
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fat-free mass
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A progressive declin in skeletal muscle mass begins around age ___
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50
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A gradual decrease in ______ is associated wtih aging. Coupled with a more sedentary lifestyle, this typically results in a loss of ________ and a concurrent increase in the less metabolically active fat mass.
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basal metabolic rate
lean muscle mass |
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During the ________ a positive nitrogen balance exists, with deposition of protein into skeletal muscle and increasing muscle mass.
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developmental years
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After ___ of age, body mass begins to decline, typically by 1 to 2 kg in the eighth decade and accelerating therafter
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70
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This decline in body mass represents a loss of ____, which exceeds the continued rise in fat mass.
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fat-free mass
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The average change in percentage body fat liner between ages ___ and ___ from both men and women.
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25 and 75
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The ____________ accumulates primarily in central areas as opposed to peripheral areas
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age-related increases in fat mass
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_______ measurements of ______, such as the ration of waist to hip circumference, ahve been linked to an _____________.
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increased
central-to-peripheral adiposity increased risk for cardiovascular disease |
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Regular ____ has an obvious impact on energy balance by increasing energy expenditure
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aerobic exercise
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Regular _____ has positive anabolic effects in older individuals, leading to the preservation of skeletal muscle mass, which cna help to slow the age-related decline in basal metabolic rate
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resistance training
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____________ can reduce the percentage body fat at any age. However longitudinal studies of highly competitive athletes suggest that exercise does not prevent an age-related increase in body fat.
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Exercise training
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Children are less efficient than adults are at temperature regulation because of the ___________________ of their immatue thermoregulatory system.
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anthropometric and functional differences
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Children consistently sweat ___ than adults. Thus, children may have difficulty makeing ______.
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less
making thermoregulatory adaptations during extreme temperature conditions |
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The _____ of a child, relative to body mass, is greater than that of an adult, allowing a ________.
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surface area
greater rate of heat exchange |
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In neutral or warm climates, the increased surface area may
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facilitate heat dissipation
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In _______ this increased surface area becomes a major handicap by increasing unwanted head transfer fromt eh body to the environment during cold exposure adn vice versa during exposure to heat
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climatic extremes
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______ for children is musch lower than that for adults
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Sweating rate
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Although the number of ____ in children equals the nubmer in teh adult, the rate of ___ for each gland is half that of the adult glands
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sweat glands
sweat producation |
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The threshold for sweating is _____ in children than in adults
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higher
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Children ____ to hot environments less efficiently adn ____ than adults. children therefore require a _______ of exposure to a hot environmetn for acclimiatization.
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acclimatize
at a slower rate longer and more gradual program |
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__________ children are at increased risk for heat-related illness, because the rise in core temperature in proportion to the degree of dehydration occurs at a greater rate
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Hypohydrated children
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Children at highest risk for heat-related illness include:
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1. children with diseases affecting the sweating mechanism
2. children with diseases affecting the cardiovascular system 3. children wtih obesity 4. Children with a history of heat stroke |
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Prevention of heat-related illness can be achieved by
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ensuring that children who participate in physical activites, especially in hot, humid environments, are properly hydrated, acclimatized, and conditioned for the exercise
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Cold injuries in children
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a. lesscommon than heat-related injuries
b. may be superficial or systemic c. little acclimatization occurs following repeated exposure to cold. d. physical fitness does not appear to decrease the risk of cold injury |
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Prevention of cold-related injuries during exercise is dependent on
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proper clothing and limitation of exposure to cold
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The greater ratio of body surface area to mass in children results in
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greater heat loss in the cold, especially during swimming. For this reason, children exerciseing in cool water shoiuld exit adn warm up at least every 15 mins.
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