Chapter 2 Flash Cards

Front 1

Identify the parts of the neuron and describe their functions.

Back 1

The nervous system is composed of neurons, nerve cells that communicate with one another through chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, which transmit nerve impulses across the tiny gaps, or synapses, between neurons. The parts of the neuron include the cell body (or soma), which performs the cell’s metabolic functions; dendrites, or filaments that receive messages (nerve impulses) from neighboring neurons; axons, which are long cable-like structures that carry nerve impulses across the neuron; terminal buttons, or small branching structures at the tips of axons; and the myelin sheath, the insulating layer in some neurons that speeds transmission of nerve impulses.

Front 2

2 Identify the major parts of the nervous system and cerebral cortex and describe their functions.

Back 2

The nervous system consists of two major parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for controlling bodily functions and performing higher mental functions. The peripheral nervous system consists of two major divisions, the somatic nervous system, which transmits messages between the central nervous system and the sense organs and muscles, and the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary bodily processes. The autonomic nervous system has two branches or subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic. These two branches have largely opposing effects, with the sympathetic nervous system mobilizing the body’s resources needed for physical exertion or responding to stress, and the parasympathetic system, which replenishes bodily resources and takes control during times of relaxation. The cerebral cortex consists of four parts or lobes: (1) the occipital lobe, which is involved in processing visual stimuli; (2) the temporal lobe, which is involved in processing sounds or auditory stimuli; (3), the parietal lobe, which is responsible for sensations of touch, temperature, and pain, and the (4) frontal lobes, which are responsible for controlling muscle movement (motor cortex) and higher mental functions (prefrontal cortex).

Front 3

2.3 Evaluate biological perspectives on abnormal behavior

Back 3

Biological factors such as disturbances in neurotransmitter functioning in the brain, heredity, and underlying brain abnormalities are implicated in the development of abnormal behavior. However, biology is not destiny and genes do not dictate behavior outcomes. There is a complex interaction of nature and nurture, of environment and heredity, in the development of abnormal behavior. Genetics creates a predisposition or likelihood—not a certainty—that certain behavior patterns or disorders will develop. Where genetic factors play a role, multiple genes, not any individual gene, are involved.

Front 4

4 Describe the major psychological models of abnormal behavior, identify the major theorists, and evaluate these models

Back 4

Psychodynamic perspectives reflect the views of Freud and those who follow in this tradition, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, and Margaret Mahler, who believed that abnormal behavior stemmed from psychological causes based on underlying psychic forces within the personality. Learning theorists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner posited that the principles of learning can be used to explain both abnormal and normal behavior. Humanistic theorists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed it is important to understand the obstacles that people encounter as they strive toward self-actualization and authenticity. Cognitive theorists such as Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis focus on the role of distorted and self-defeating thinking in explaining abnormal behavior. The psychodynamic model led to the development of psychodynamic models of treatment and focused attention on the importance of unconscious processes, but it has been criticized largely on the basis of the degree of importance placed on sexual and aggressive impulses and the difficulty subjecting some of the more abstract concepts to scientific tests. Learning-based theories spawned the development of behavior therapy and a broader conceptual model called social-cognitive theory, but have been criticized for not providing a fuller account of self-awareness and subjective experience and the importance of genetic factors. Humanistic models increased attention on the importance of conscious, subjective experience, but it has been criticized for the difficulty posed by studying private mental experiences and self-actualization objectively. Cognitive models spawned cognitive approaches to therapy and the emergence of cognitivebehavioral therapy, but has been criticized that it is too narrowly focused on emotional disorders and nagging questions about whether distorted thinking is a cause or an effect of depression.

Front 5

5 Describe the sociocultural perspective and evaluate its importance in understanding abnormal behavior.

Back 5

Sociocultural theorists broaden our outlook on abnormal behavior by taking into account sociocultural factors relating to the development of psychological disorders, including roles of social class, ethnicity, and exposure to poverty and racism. Sociocultural theorists focus much-needed attention on the role of social stressors in abnormal behavior. Research supports the link between social class and severe psychological disorders.

Front 6

Describe and evaluate the biopsychosocial perspective on abnormal behavior and identify a major biopsychosocial model.

Back 6

The biopsychosocial perspective seeks an understanding of abnormal behavior based on the interplay of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. A leading example is the diathesis–stress model, which holds that a person may have a predisposition, or diathesis, for a particular disorder, but whether the disorder actually develops depends on the interaction of the diathesis with stress-inducing life experiences. Although the biopsychosocial model has emerged as a leading conceptual model, its complexity may also be its greatest weakness.

Front 7

Identify the major types of helping professionals and describe their training backgrounds and professional roles.

Back 7

Clinical psychologists complete graduate training in clinical psychology, typically at the doctoral level. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in psychiatry. Clinical or psychiatric social workers are trained in graduate schools of social work or social welfare, generally at the master’s level

Front 8

8 Describe the goals and techniques of various forms of psychotherapy: psychodynamic therapy, behavior therapy, person-centered therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, eclectic therapy, group therapy, family therapy, and couple therapy.

Back 8

Psychodynamic therapy originated with psychoanalysis, the approach to treatment developed by Freud. Psychoanalysts use techniques such as free association and dream analysis to help people gain insight into their unconscious conflicts and work through them in light of their adult personalities. Contemporary psychodynamic therapy is typically briefer and more direct in its approach to exploring the patient’s defenses and transference relationships. Behavior therapy applies the principles of learning to help people make adaptive behavioral changes. Behavior therapy techniques include systematic desensitization, gradual exposure, modeling, operant conditioning approaches, and social skills training. Cognitivebehavioral therapy integrates behavioral and cognitive approaches in treatment. Humanistic therapy focuses on the client’s subjective, conscious experience in the here and now. Rogers’s person-centered therapy helps clients increase their awareness and acceptance of inner feelings that had met with social condemnation and been disowned. The effective person-centered therapist possesses the qualities of unconditional positive regard, empathy, genuineness, and congruence. Cognitive therapy focuses on modifying the maladaptive cognitions believed to underlie emotional problems and self-defeating behavior. Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy focuses on disputing irrational beliefs that cause emotional distress and substituting adaptive beliefs and behavior. Beck’s cognitive therapy focuses on helping clients identify, challenge, and replace distorted cognitions, such as tendencies to magnify negative events and minimize personal accomplishments. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a broader form of behavior therapy that integrates cognitive and behavioral techniques in treatment. There are two general forms of eclectic therapy, technical eclecticism, a pragmatic approach that draws on techniques from different schools of therapy without necessarily subscribing to the theoretical positions represented by these schools, and integrative eclecticism, a model of therapy that attempts to synthesize and integrate diverse theoretical approaches. Group therapy provides opportunities for mutual support and shared learning experiences within a group setting to help individuals overcome psychological difficulties and develop more adaptive behaviors. Family therapists work with conflicted families to help them resolve their differences. Family therapists focus on clarifying family communications, resolving role conflicts, guarding against scapegoating of individual members, and helping members develop greater autonomy. Couple therapists focus on helping couples improve their communications and resolve their differences.

Front 9

Evaluate the effectiveness of psychotherapy and the role of nonspecific factors in therapy.

Back 9

Evidence from meta-analyses of psychotherapy outcome studies that compare psychotherapy with control groups strongly supports the effectiveness of psychotherapy. The question remains, however, whether there are differences in the relative effectiveness of different types of psychotherapy. Empirically supported therapies are those that have demonstrated significant benefits in comparison to control procedures in scientific studies. Nonspecific factors, including empathy, support, attention from a therapist, and the development of a therapeutic alliance and a working alliance, are common factors shared among different types of therapy. Questions remain about the degree to which therapeutic gains are due to the specific treatments clients receive or to the nonspecific factors that different therapies share in common

Front 10

Describe the importance of multicultural factors in psychotherapy and barriers to use of mental health services by ethnic minorities.

Back 10

Therapists need to be sensitive to cultural differences and how they affect the therapeutic process. Some forms of therapy may vary in effectiveness when used with members of different cultural groups. Culturally competent therapists both understand and respect cultural differences that may impact the practice of psychotherapy. Factors that limit use of mental health services by ethnic minorities include cultural factors regarding preferences for other forms of help, cultural mistrust of the mental health system, cultural barriers, linguistic barriers, and financial and accessibility barriers.

Front 11

1 Identify the major categories of psychotropic or psychiatric drugs and examples of drugs in each type, and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.

Back 11

The three major classes of psychiatric drugs are antianxiety drugs, antidepressants, and antipsychotics. Antianxiety drugs, such as Valium, may relieve short-term anxiety but do not directly help people solve their problems or cope with stress. Antidepressants, such as Prozac and Zoloft, can help relieve depression, but are not a cure and also carry risks of side effects. Antianxiety and antidepressant drugs may be no more effective than psychological approaches to treatment. Lithium and anticonvulsive drugs are helpful in many cases in stabilizing mood swings in people with bipolar disorder. Antipsychotic drugs help control flagrant psychotic symptoms, but regular use of these drugs is associated with the risk of serious side effects

Front 12

Describe the use of electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery and evaluate their effectiveness.

Back 12

ECT involves administration of a series of electric shocks to the brain that can lead to dramatic relief from severe depression, even in people who have failed to respond to other treatments. However, ECT is an invasive form of treatment, is associated with high relapse rates, and carries risk of memory loss, especially for events occurring around the time of treatment. Psychosurgery has all but disappeared as a form of treatment because of adverse consequences

Front 13

Evaluate biomedical treatment approaches.

Back 13

Biomedical therapies in the form of drug therapy and ECT can help relieve troubling symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and mania, help stabilize mood swings in bipolar patients, and control hallucinations and delusions in schizophrenia patients, but they are not a cure. Moreover, psychotherapy may be as effective as drug therapy in treating many problems relating to anxiety and depression without the risk of drug side effects and possible physiological dependence. In some cases, a combination of psychological and drug therapy may be more effective than either treatment approach alone