Chapter 2 (Final Exam)

Front 1

Define Organ systems.

Give an example.

Back 1

A group of organs that contribute to specific functions within the body

Ex. Gastrointestinal system, nervous system.

Front 2

Define Organs.

Give an example.

Back 2

A group of tissues precisely arranged so they can work together to perform specific functions.

Ex. Liver, Brain.

Front 3

Define tissues.

List the four types.

Back 3

A group of cells with similar structure and function. There are only four types of tissue.

Epithelial tissue.

Connective tissue.

Muscular tissue.

Nerve tissue.

Front 4

Define cells.

Give an example.

Back 4

The smallest living unit in the body.

Neuron, Hepatocyte.

Front 5

Define chemicals.

Give and example.

Back 5

Atoms or molecules that are the building blocks for all matter.

Ex. Oxygen, Protein

Front 6

1.) What is the major structures of the skeletal system?

2.) What function does the skeletal system perform?

Back 6

1.) Bones

2.) Provides structure, support and protects internal organs.

Front 7

1.) What is the major structures of the muscular system?

2.) What function does the musular system perform?

Back 7

1.) Muscles (Smooth, cardiac, skeletal.

2.)Provides structure, supports and moves trunk and limbs; moves substances through the body..

Front 8

1.) What is the major structures of the integumentary system?

2.) What function does theintegumentary system perform?

Back 8

1.) Skin, hair, nails.

2.) Protects against pathogens, Helps regulate body temperature.

Front 9

1.) What is the major structures of the circulatory system?

2.) What function does the circulatory system perform?

Back 9

1.) Heart, blood vessels, blood.

2.) Transports nutrients and waste to and from body tissues.

Front 10

1.) What is the major structures of the respiratory system?

2.) What function does therespiratory system perform?

Back 10

1.) Air passages, lungs.

2.) Carries air into and out of lungs, where gas exchange occurs

Front 11

1.) What is the major structures of the immune system?

2.) What function does the immune system perform?

Back 11

1.) Lymph nodes, vessels and WBC's.

2.) Provides protection against infection and disease.

Front 12

1.) What is the major structures of the digestive system?

2.) What function does the digestive system perform?

Back 12

1.) Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancrease, small and large intestines.

2.) Stores and digests food, absorbs nutrients, elimates waste.

Front 13

1.) What is the major structures of the excretory system?

2.) What function does the excretory system perform?

Back 13

1.) Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, lungs skin.

2.) eliminates waste, maintains water and chemical balance.

Front 14

1.) What is the major structures of the nervous system?

2.) What function does the nervous system perform?

Back 14

1.) brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs and receptors.

2.) Controls/coordinates body movements and senses, controls conciousness and creativity, helps monitor and maintain other body systems.

Front 15

1.) What is the major structures of the endocrine system?

2.) What function does the endocrine system perform?

Back 15

1.) Glands (Adrenal, thyroid and pancrease) hypothalamus.

2.) maintains homeostasis, regulates metabolism, water and mineral balance, growth and sexual development, and reproduction.

Front 16

1.) What is the major structures of the reproductive system?

2.) What function does the reproductive system perform?

Back 16

1.) Overies, mammary glands, uterus, testes.

2.) Produces offspring.

Front 17

Explain the function of muscle tissue.

Back 17

For movement of body, or organs, or blood, andregulate entry or exit of materials into / out of body.

Front 18

Explain the function of nervous tissue.

Back 18

For conduction of nerve (electrical) signals.

Front 19

Explain the function of epithelial tissue.

Back 19

For covering body or organ surfaces, liningcavities & glands.

Front 20

Explain the function of connective tissue.

Back 20

For supporting tissue, providing special functions.

Front 21

Explain where each muscle tissue is located and what type of nervous system regulates it:

1.) Cardiac muscle.

2.) Skeletal muscle.

3.) Smooth muscle.

Back 21

1.) It is found in heart, functions under autonomic control.

2.) It is found in muscles of body movement, functions under somatic control.

3.) It is found in lungs, blood vessels, GI tract,urinary tract, & reproductive tracts and functions under autonomic control.

Front 22

1.) Explain where nervous tissue is located.

2.) Name the two types of nerve cells and their functions.

Back 22

1.) In the CNS and PNS.

2. A.)Neurons – transmit electrical signals (action potentials)between neurons or between neuron & muscle or gland cells.

B.) Neuroglial (glial) cells

Front 23

Define epithelium.

Back 23

A continuous layer of epithelial cells that forms a membrane (covering) for body or organ surfaces, lining cavities & glands.

Front 24

What are the two types of epithelium and what does each type of epithelium do?

Back 24

1.) simple epithelium = single cell layer thick epithelium (allows foreasy diffusion of substances across, like lining of lung alveoli orintestines). Can be shaped squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.

2.) stratified epithelium = multiple cell layer thick epithelium forprotection, like our skin or lining our mouth. Can be shapedsquamous, cuboidal, or columnar.

Front 25

What three things is connective tissue composed of?

Back 25

Fibers.

Ground substance.

specialized cells.

Front 26

Define fibers in connective tissue.

Define ground substance in connective tissue.

Back 26

1.) Provide strength or flexibilityto tissue, or repair tissue. (collagen, elastin)

2.) matrix that supportsfibers, cells, and other structures in tissue. (The jello stuff around the fruit).

Front 27

What are the two types of connective tissue?

Back 27

1. Connective tissue proper.

2. Specialized connective tissue.

Front 28

What are the three types of connective tissue proper and give example locations of each type.

Back 28

1.) Loose areolar - Between muscles, surround glands, wrapping small vessels and nerves.

2.) loose, adipose - Under skin around kidneys and heart.

3.) Dense - Tendons, ligaments.

Front 29

List the three types of specialized connective tissue and give example locations of each type.

Back 29

Cartilage (semisolid) - Nose, external ear.

Bone (solid) - Skeleton.

Blood (fluid) - within blood vessels.

Front 30

Name four major specialized CELLS of connective tissue.

Back 30

Macrophages.

Adipocytes.

Fibroblasts.

Mast cells.

Front 31

What are macrophages functions?

Back 31

Cells that migrate from blood into tissues seekingout & destroying pathogens. (macro = “big” and phage = “eater”).

Front 32

What are adipocyte functions?

Back 32

Fat cells.

For cushioning body & organs, and for energystorage.

Front 33

What are fibroblasts functions?

Back 33

Cells that make new fibers, for repair and growth oftissue. (Where scar tissue comes from)

Front 34

What are mast cells functions?

Back 34

Cells that secrete “histamine” in response to anallergen & mediate allergic reactions.

Front 35

What can occur due to amild or severe histamine reaction?

What are the two types of this reaction?

Back 35

1.) Erythema.

2. A) Localized erythema.

B) Systemic erythema.

Front 36

Define erythema.

Back 36

Patches of reddened,inflamed, bumpy skin. Often referred toas “hives” (not severe).

Front 37

Where do localized erythemas and systemic erythemas occur at?

Back 37

Localized erythemas occur only at the site of contact.

systemic erythemas occur all over the body in response to an allergen (bad mkay).

Front 38

What are anaphylactic reactions?

What are some symptoms?

Back 38

1.) Life-threatening systemic response tohistamine.

2.) labored breathing, closed airways, swelling offace, lips, erythema, rapid heart rate, dizziness, vomiting, fainting.

Front 39

What are adult stem cells?

How do embryonic stem cells differ from adult stem cells?

Back 39

1.) Cells in major tissue types of body that canreplace dead or damaged cells.

2.) Embryonic stem cells aretotipotent or can become ANY tissue type in body.

Front 40

Give some examples where stem cells are located?

Back 40

1.) Skin.

2.) Bones.

3.) Muscles.

4.) Lining of G.I tract.

5.) Blood cells (RBC?WBC).

6.) Teeth.

7.) Liver.

Front 41

1.) Define differentiation.

2.) How many genes are active at a given type because of this?

Back 41

1.) Each cell becomes specialized for a particular function.

2.) 300 out of about 25,000

Front 42

What major molecules can the body metabolize?

Back 42

Carbohydrates (Glucose).

Lipids (fatty acids, triglycerides).

Proteins (amino acids).

Lactic acid (lactate).

Front 43

In what order does the body metabolize these molecules.

Back 43

1.) Carbohydrates ( bodies prefered source of energy).

2.) Lipid metabolism - when no carbs are available.

3.) Protein metabolism - When no lipids are available.

4.) lactic acid metabolism - The body routinely metabolizes this

Front 44

Define glycolysis.

Back 44

The conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate).

Front 45

Define glycogenesis.

Where does this occur?

Back 45

The production of glycogen (glucose>glycogen).

Mostly in skeletal muscles and the liver.

Front 46

1.) Define glycogenolysis

2.) What does glycogenolysis yeild?

3.) What occur in the liver only?

Back 46

1.) Hydrolysis (breakdown) of glycogen.

2.) Yields glucose 6 phosphate for glycolysis.

3.) Free glucose can be secreted into the blood.

Front 47

Define gluconeogenesis.

What molecules are used in the production of gluconeogenesis and where from?

Back 47

1.) The production of glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules

2.) Lactic acid, lipids, amino acids in the liver.

Front 48

Define lipogenesis.

What stimulates lipogenesis?

Back 48

1.) The formation of triglycerides, primarily in adipose tissue.

2.) Insulin

Front 49

Define lipolysis.

What stimulates lipolysis?

Back 49

Hydrolysis (breakdown) of triglycerides primarly from adipose tissue.

2.) Cortisol

Front 50

1.) Define Ketogenesis.

2.) What are ketones made up of?

3.) What are ketones formed from.

4.) Where does this process occur at?

Back 50

1.) The formation of ketone bodies.

2.) Four carbon long organic acids.

3.) From fatty acids.

4.) In the liver, when no carbs are available and the body needs energy.

Front 51

What is another term for glucose metabolism?

Back 51

glycolysis.

Front 52

What is glycogen metabolism.

What are the two terms that describe the different ways of glycogen metabolism.

Back 52

Buildup or breakdown of glycogen

EX. glycogenesis or glycogenolysis

Front 53

1.) What stimulates glycogenesis?

2.) What enzyme is involved?

Back 53

Insulin stimulates glycogenesis.

glycogen synthase help combine glucose with another glucose to form glycogen..

Front 54

1.) What stimulates glycogenolysis?

2.) What enzyme is involved?

Back 54

1.) Glucagon stimulates the glycogenolysis.

2.) Glycogen phosphorylase help glycogen and glucose 6 phosphate combine into free glucose.

Front 55

Where is glycolysis used for cell respiration?

What does the conversion of 1 glucose molecule result in the production of?

Back 55

1.) Cell cytoplasm

2.) 2 ATP (NET)

2 NADH2

2 Pyruvate molecules.

Front 56

Pyruvate can follow what two paths?

Back 56

Aerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration.

Front 57

What three things occur during glycolysis of the pyruvate in aerobic respiration?

What are the products of the pyruvate breakdown in aerobic respiration?

Back 57

1.) Pyruvate processing.

2.) The krebs cycle.

3.) Electron transport Chain.

Net product total aerobic respiration is 34-36 ATP.

Front 58

1.) What t occurs during glycolysis of the pyruvate in anaerobic respiration?

2.) What are the products of the pyruvate breakdown in aerobic respiration?

Back 58

1.) Fermentation.

2.)Products: 2ATP

Lactic Acid

Front 59

Define ischemia.

Back 59

Theloss of blood flow to organ or tissue.

Front 60

1.) What occurs during loss of blood flow to the heart?

2.) What is produced by the heart as a result of the loss of blood flow?

3.) What does this cause a person to feel?

Back 60

1.) The heart resorts to anaerobic respiration.

2.) Lactate.

3.) (Angina pectoris) or painradiating down the left arm and in chest.

Front 61

What is the build up lactate a prelude to?

Back 61

myocardial infarction (heart attack).

Front 62

What is normal serum lactate?

What is high serum lactate called and its value?

Back 62

1.) 1 - .05 mmol/L

2.) hyperlactatemia - 4mmol/L

Front 63

During the first step (pyruvate processing) of aerobic respiration, what are the molecules going in and what comes out?

Back 63

In: 2 Pyruvate

Out: 2 Acetyl CoA

2 NADH2

2 CO2

Front 64

During the second step (krebs cycle[citric acid cycle]) of aerobic respiration, what are the molecules going in and what comes out?

Back 64

IN:2 Acetyl CoA

Out: 2 ATP

6 NADH2

2 FADH2

4 CO2

Front 65

During the third step (electron transport chain) of aerobic respiration, what are the molecules going in and what comes out?

Back 65

IN:6 NADH2

2 FADH2

OUT: 30 – 32 ATP

10 NAD+

2 FAD+

12 H2O

Front 66

What is the general significance of the hydrogen ions contained with the products of the Kreb's Cycle - NADH2 and FADH2

Back 66

Used as the final electron acceptor inETC in the production of ATP!

Front 67

1.) What is cyanide?

2.) What are the symptoms of cyanide?

3.) How does cyanide cause these symtoms?

Back 67

1.) A fast acting lethal poison.

2.) Rapid heart rate, Tiredness, Seizures, headaches.

3.) Prevents ATP formation by blocking the transfer of electrons from cytochroma a3 to oxygen, prevent oxygen from being the final electron acceptor in E.T.C.

Front 68

Why does lactic acid metabolism occur?

Back 68

Regularly occurs in liver to preventacidosis from skeletal muscle activity.

Front 69

What is the Cori cycle (lactic acid metabolism)?

Back 69

Lactic acid (from skeletal muscle activity & anaerobic respiration) can cause“metabolic acidosis” and drive blood pH ↓.

Front 70

What two things does the liver recycle lactic acid in the blood into?

What does this do to blood pH?

Back 70

1. A.)Free glucose (returned in the bloodstream.

B.) Stored glycogen (for future needs).

2.) Reverses metabolic acidosis raising blood pH.

Front 71

List the 3 steps in lipogensis a mechanism for lipid metabolism.

Back 71

1. Extra blood Glucose enters glycolysis to make pyruvate.

2. Pyruvate converted into Acetyl CoA (now can go into many paths!).

3. Acetyl CoA used by liver to make:

a) cholesterol.

b) ketones.

c) fatty acids.

Front 72

What two ways is Acetyl CoA used by liver to make cholesterol?

Back 72

Cholesterol is converted into:

1.) bile for digestion or

2.) used for steroids

Front 73

1.) How is Acetyl CoA used by liver to make ketones?

2.) What are the three types of ketones?

Back 73

1.) Ketones are metabolized for energy (ATP) in ketosis if no carbs in lipolysis.

2. A.) acetone – waste product excreted in urine (sweet breathe!).

B.) acetoacetic acid.

C.) beta-hydroxybutyric acid used to make Acetyl CoA for ATP.

Front 74

How is Acetyl CoA used by liver to make fatty acids?

Back 74

fatty acids are converted into white fat (triglycerides) for energy storage.

Front 75

What two ways is lypolysis used in lipid metabolism to breakdown fatty acid molecules for energy.

Back 75

1.) Ketones metabolized for ATP.

2.) Fatty acids:

Converted into Acetyl CoA – can be enter directly in Kreb’s cycle for ATP.

Acetyl CoA – can be converted into pyruvate and then changed into glucose. The glucose can be stored as glycogen.

Front 76

Define Ketosis.

Define Ketoacidosis.

Definemetabolic acidosis.

Back 76

1.) The use of ketones for energy.

2.) When ketosis causes blood pH to decrease (becomeacidic).

3.) Any metabolic process (such as ketosis) that cancause a decrease in blood pH.

Front 77

What are essential amino acids?

What are nonessential amino acids?

What happens to excess amino acids?

Back 77

1.) that which we need to consume in diet because body doesn’t make.

2.) Nonessential a.a. = ones our body can make.

3.) Converted by liver into pyruvate or other acids

Front 78

Excess amino acids converted by the liver into pyruvate or other acids can be used in what 2 ways?

Back 78

1) in Kreb’s cycle for ATP.

2) Converted to fat (lipogenesis) or glucose (gluconeogenesis).

Front 79

What happens to unused amino acids?

Back 79

The excess or what body absolutely cannot use goes to the liver where it converts the amino acids into Urea and is excreted by kidneys as ammonia.

Front 80

1.) What are - blood panels including BUN (blood urea nitrogen) used for?

2.) what are normal ranges in a BUN test?

Back 80

1.) To determine kidney function.

2.) Normal BUN = 10 – 20 mg/dl.

Front 81

1.) What is the name for higher ranges?

2.) What can high ranges in a BUN test indicate?

Back 81

1.) Azotemia.

2.) Excess amino acid metabolism or kidney failure.

Front 82

Metabolism of what molecules can lead to metabolic acidosis?

Back 82

Ketones.

Lipids.

Fatty acids.

Amino Acids.

Front 83

What is a major disorder in amino acid metabolism?

Back 83

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Front 84

What IS PKU caused by?

Back 84

A genetic condition of mutation in gene for enzyme Phenylalanine hydrolase (PAH).

We need PAH to metabolize amino acid “phenylalanine”.

Without PAH phenylalaninebuilds up in body and is converted to “phenylketone”, which is excreted in urine.

Front 85

Why is phenylketone bad for people?

Back 85

It is toxic and causes seizures.

Front 86

What is the treatment for PKU?

Back 86

Restrict phenylalanine in diet.

(Nutrition labels have a warning)