Chapter 2: Chemical Principles

Front 1

Atom

Back 1

- the smallest component of a pure substance that exhibits physical and chemical properites of the substances

Front 2

Molecules

Back 2

- atoms interacting with each in cartain combinations

Front 3

Atomic Number

Back 3

- the number of protons in the nucleus

Front 4

Atomic Weight

Back 4

- the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

Front 5

Chemical Element

Back 5

- all atoms with the same number of protons behave the same way chemically

Front 6

Isotopes

Back 6

- aotms with differnt numbers of nuetrons in their nuclei

- same number of protons in their nuclei, but their atomic weights differ due to the difference in neutrons

Front 7

Electron Shells

Back 7

- regions that are corresponding to differnt energy levels

- contributes to electron configuration

Front 8

Electron Configuration

Back 8

- the inermost shell holds 2 electrons

- 8 electrons in the second and third shell

- 18 electrons in the fourth, fifth, and sixth

Front 9

Valence

Back 9

- combining capacity of an atom is the number of extra or missing electrons it is outmost electron shell

Front 10

Compound

Back 10

- a molecule that contains at least two different kinds of atoms

Front 11

Chemical Bonds

Back 11

- attractive forces fomed form the molcules that hold together becasue of the shared valence electrons

Front 12

Ionic Bond

Back 12

- when atoms have gained or lost outer electrons

Front 13

Covalent Bond

Back 13

- when outer electrons are shared

Front 14

Ion

Back 14

- aquired negative or postive charbe atom

Front 15

Ionic Bond

Back 15

- an attraction between ions of oppisite charge that hold them together to form a stable molecule

Front 16

Cations

Back 16

- positively charged ions

Front 17

Anions

Back 17

- negatively charged ions

Front 18

Convalent Bond

Back 18

- chemical bond formed by two atoms sharing one or more pairs of electrons

Front 19

*Remember*

Back 19

- Convalent bonds: are formed by sharing of electrons between atoms

- Ionic bonds: are formed by attraction between atoms that have lost or gained electrons are therefore positively or negatively charged

Front 20

Hydorgen Bond

Back 20

- a hydrogen bond is convalently bonded to one oxygen or nitrogen atom that is attracted to another oxygen or nitrogen atom

- are weak and do not bind atoms into molecules

- serves as bridges between different molecules or between various portions of the same molecule

Front 21

Molecular Weight

Back 21

- the sum of the atomic weights of all its atoms

Front 22

Mole

Back 22

- molecular weight express in grams

Front 23

Chemical Reactions

Back 23

- involve the making or breaking of bonds between atoms

- same number of atoms but after rearranged new properties are found in the atoms

Front 24

Cheminal Energry

Back 24

- occurs when bonds between atoms are formed or brocken during chemical reactions

- require energy when broken down

- release energy when they are formed

Front 25

Endergonic Reaction

Back 25

- energy is directed inward

Front 26

Exergonic Reaction

Back 26

- energy is directed outward

Front 27

Sythesis Reaction

Back 27

- when two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and one larger molecules

- A + B = AB

Front 28

Anabolism

Back 28

- pathways of sythesis reactions in living organisms

- example: amino acids form proteins

Front 29

Decomposition Reaction

Back 29

- reaction bonds are brocken down into smaller molecules, ions, or atoms

- AB = A + B

Front 30

Catabolism

Back 30

- decomposition ractions that occur in living organisms

- ex: breakdown of sucrose into simpler sugars, glucose and fructose during digestion

Front 31

Exchange Reactions

Back 31

- part sythesis and part decomposition

- AB + CD = AD + BC

- AB and CD are broken in a decomposition process

- AD and BC are formed in a synthesis process

Front 32

Reversible Reactions

Back 32

- can occur in either direction

- occur because neither the reactants nor the end products are very stable

- others reverse under special conditions such as when water or heat is implemented

Front 33

Inorganic Compounds

Back 33

- molecules usually small and structurally simple which lack carbon and in which organic bonds may play an important role

- ex: water, carbon dioxide, salts, acids, bases

Front 34

Organic Compounds

Back 34

- always contain carbon and hydrogen and typically are structurally complex

- carbon chains form the basis of many organic compounds

- held together mostly and entirely by covalent bonds

- ex: polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids

Front 35

Macromolcules

Back 35

- contains thousands of atoms

Front 36

Water

Back 36

- nutrients dissolved in water facilitates the pasaage through the cell membrane

- water is the medium for the most chemical reactions

- a polar molecule

Front 37

Polar Molecule

Back 37

- uneven distribution of charges

Front 38

Polar Nature of Water

Back 38

1) water molecule is capable of forming four hydrogen bonds with nearby water molecules

2) the polarity of water make it a good solvent

3) polarity accounts for water's characteristic role as a reactant or product in many chemical reactions

4) the relatively strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules makes water an excellent water buffer

Front 39

Dissociation

Back 39

- seperation into individial molecules in water; dissolve

Front 40

Ionization

Back 40

- dissociation

- when inorganic salts break apart into ions

Front 41

Acid

Back 41

- defined a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more negative ions

- it is a proton donor

Front 42

Base

Back 42

- dissociates into into one or more positive ions plus one or more negative charged hydroxide ions (OH-)

- proton acceptor

Front 43

Salt

Back 43

- dissociates in water into cations or anions

Front 44

pH

Back 44

- a scale that measure the amount of H+ in a solution

- means potential hydrogen

- acidic solutions contain more H+ and less OH-

- basic solutions contain more OH- and less H+

Front 45

pH Buffers

Back 45

- compounds that help keep the pH from changing drastically

Front 46

Organic Compunds Common Elements

Back 46

- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

- sometimes sulfur and phosphorus

Front 47

Carbon Skeleton

Back 47

- the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule

- most carbon are bonded to hydrogen atoms

Front 48

Functional Groups

Back 48

- the bonding of other elements with carbon and hydrogen that form characteristics to specific groups

- are responsible for most of the characteristics chemical properties and many of the physical properties of a particular organic compound

- help us classify organic compounds

Front 49

Macromolecules

Back 49

- small organic molecules combined into very larbe molecules

- are usually polymers

Front 50

Polymores

Back 50

- small molecules called monomers that are formed by convalent bonding

Front 51

Dehydration Sythesis

Back 51

- the elimation of a hydrogen atom from one monomer and a hydroxyl group form the other

- they combine to to produce water

- ex: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

Front 52

Condensation Reaction

Back 52

- when a water of molecule is released in a reaction

Front 53

Organic compunds

Back 53

- Carbohydrates

- Lipids

- Proteins

- Nucleic Acids

Front 54

Carbohydrates

Back 54

- large and diverse group of organic compounds that includes sugars and starches

- primary function is to fuel cell activities with a ready source of energy

- made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

2:1 ration carbon to oxygen

Front 55

Monosaccharides

(carbohydrates)

Back 55

- simple sugars

- each molecule contains from three to seven carbon atoms

- prefix indicates how many carbon atoms are in the molecule

Front 56

Disaccharides

Back 56

- formed when to monosaccharides bond in a dehydration synthesis reaction

- ex: glucose and fructose from sucrose

- can be broken down into simpler molecules when water is added

Front 57

Isomers

Back 57

- two molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures and properties

Front 58

Hydrolysis

Back 58

- the reverse of the dehydration sythesis

- Disaccharides turn into monosaccharides

Front 59

Polysaccahrides

Back 59

- third major group of carbohydrates

- often have side chains branching off the main structure and are classified as macromolecules

- can be split apart into their monosaccharide sugars with addition of water

- lack sweetness of sugars and are not soluble in water

- ex: glycogen and cellulose

Front 60

Amylases

Back 60

- an enzyme that can break down the bonds between glucose molecules in glycogen

Front 61

Lipids

Back 61

- second major group of organic compounds

- composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

- nonpolar molecule

- essential to the structure and function of membranes

- they are nonpolar thus most lipids are insoluble in water but dissolve in nonpolar solvents

Front 62

Simple Lipids

Back 62

- called fats or triglycerides

- contain an alcohol glycerol and a group of compounds called fatty acids

- fat is composed when a molecule of glycerol combines with one to three fatty acids of molecules

- number of fatty acids determines whether the fat molecule is a monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride

- chemical bond between glycerol and fatty acids is an ester linkage

Front 63

Saturated

Back 63

- when it has no double bonds

- it contains the the maximum number of hydrogen atoms

- become more solid more easily because they are relatively straight and thus able to pack together more closely

Front 64

Unsaturated

Back 64

- have double bonds the create kinks in the chain that keep the chains apart

Front 65

Complex Lipids

Back 65

- contain such elements as phosphorus, nitrogen, sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

- phospholipids are made up of are made up of glycerol, two fatty acids, and in place of the third fatty acid, a phosphate group is bonded

- build the membrane

- have polar and nonpolar region

- polar portions: phosphate group and glycerol

- nonpolar: fatty acids

Front 66

Steriods

Back 66

- structurally very different from lipids

- four interconnected carbon rings give them their characteristic

- is a sterol (alcohol) when OH in attached to to one of the rings

- sterols separated the fatty acid chains and thus prevent the packaging that would harden the plasma membrane at low temperatures

Front 67

Proteins

Back 67

- organic molecules that contain, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ( some contain sulfur)

Front 68

Enzymes

Back 68

- are the prteins that speed up biochemical reactions

Front 69

Transport Proteins

Back 69

- help transport certain chemicals into and out of cells

Front 70

Amino Acids

Back 70

- building blocks of protiens

- contain at least one carboxyl group and one amino group, one side group, and the amino acid's distinguished feature

- R Group: can be a hydrogen atom, an unbranched/branched chain of atoms, or a ring structure

Front 71

Stereoisomers

Back 71

- two configurations in which amino acids exist

- D and L

- Right hand "D" and Left hand "L"

- Amino acids in proteins are L isomers

- D amino acids occur in nature

Front 72

Peptide Bonds

Back 72

- bonds between two amino acids

- formed from dehydration synthesis

- resulting compound is dipeptide, ect..

Front 73

Primary Strcuture

Back 73

- unique structure sequence in which amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide chain

- sequence is genetically determined

-

Front 74

Secondary Structure

Back 74

- the reptitous twisting or folding of the polypeptide chain

- aspect results from the hydrogen bonds joining the atoms of peptide bonds at different locations along the peptide chain

- helices: clockwise spinning

- pleated sheets: rough parallel portions

Front 75

Teritiary Structure

Back 75

- folding is not repetitive and predictable as in the secondary strcuture

- involves several interactions between various amino acids with in the polypeptide chain

- hydrophobic interactions contribute to tertiary structure

- side groups that form hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds contribute to tertiary structures

Front 76

Quaternary Structure

Back 76

- consists of aggregation of two or more individual polypeptide chains that operate as a single functional unit

- bonds that hold a quaternary structure are the same ones that keep tertiary structure

Front 77

Denatruation

Back 77

- when a proteins unravels and lose its characteristic shape due to a hostile environment, such as temperature, pH, or salt concentration

Front 78

Simple Proteins

Back 78

- proteins that only contain to amino acids

Front 79

Conjugated proteins

Back 79

- combinations of amino acids with other organic or inorganic components

- named from their non amino acid component

Front 80

DNA

Back 80

- substance of which genes are made

- made up of two longs strands that make up a double helix

- bases are held together by hydrogen bonds

- determine all heredity traits and they control all the activities that take place within the cell

Front 81

Nucleic Acids

Back 81

- consists of RNA and DNA

- structural units of nucleic acids

Front 82

Nucleotide

Back 82

- has three parts: nitrogen- containing base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group

- named according to thier nitrogen containing base

Front 83

Nucleoside

Back 83

- combination of purine or pyrimidine plus a pentose sugar and does not contain a phosphate group

Front 84

RNA

Back 84

- usually single stranded

- five carbon sugar is ribose

- three major kinds of RNA: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA

Front 85

ATP

Back 85

- principal energy carrying molecule of all cells and is indispensalbe ot the life of the cell

- stores the chemical energy released by chemical reactions

- provides energy for reactions that require energy

- composed of adenine nucleotide and with two extra phosphate groups

Front 86

ADP

Back 86

- when the third phosphate group is hydrolized

- the energy required to attach the terminal phosphate group to ADP is supplied by the cell's various oxidation reactions