• Shuffle
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Alphabetize
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Front First
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Both Sides
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
  • Read
    Toggle On
    Toggle Off
Reading...
Front

Card Range To Study

through

image

Play button

image

Play button

image

Progress

1/85

Click to flip

Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;

Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;

H to show hint;

A reads text to speech;

85 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Decrease in cell size and functional ability
Atrophy
Increase in cell size and functional ability due to increased synthesis of intracellular components
Hypertrophy
Increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ
Hyperplasia
A reversible change in which one adult type is replaced by another adult cell type.

Usually in response to irritation or inflammation.
Metaplasia
An abnormal proliferation of cells that is characterized by changes in cells size, shape, and loss of cellular organization.
Dysplasia
Incomplete growth of an organ.
Hypoplasia
A change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other that is characterized by a loss of cell differentiation, as in cancerous cell growth.
Anaplasia
1. Decreased functional demand (immobilization)
2. Ischemia (atherosclerosis)
3. Lack of hormonal or neutral stimulation (denervation)
4. Malnutrition (Marasmus; Kwashiorkor)
5. Aging (Alzheimers)
Causes of Atrophy
1. Increased functional demand (physiological, pathological)
2. Increased endocrine stimulation (puberty [GH, androgen/ estrogen]; Gravid uterus [estrogen]; lactating breast [prolactin and estrogen])
Causes of Hypertrophy
1. Physiologic (compensatory hyperplasia; hormonal hyperplasia)
2. Pathologic (endometrial hyperplasia, prostatic hyperplasia of aging)
Causes of Hyperplasia
1. Replacement cell is better able to tolerate the environment stresses
2. Bronchial columnar epithelium --> squamous metaplasia (smoking)
3. Laryngeal respiratory epithelium --> metaplastic squamous epithelium (smoking)
4. Esophageal squamous mucosa --> Gastric type columnar mucosa (GERD)
Causes of Metaplasia
Chronic inflammation or inflammation.

Adaptive and potentially reversible after the irritant is removed.
Causes of Dysplasia
1. Hypoxia (ischemia, cardiopulmonary failure, decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood)
2. Immunologic reaction (hypersensitivity reaction, autoimmune disease)
3. Infection (virus, bacteria, parasite, fungus, prions)
4. Congenital disorder (inborn errors of metabolism)
5. Chemical agents (drugs, poision, pollution)
6. Physical form of injury (trauma, burn)
7. Nutritional or vitamin imbalance
Causes of Cell Injury
Decrease in oxidative phosphorylation (ATP production)

1. Decrease ATPase pump --> Increase Na+ & H20 --> swelling
2. Increase gylcolysis --> Increase Lactic acid --> Decrease pH
3. Ribosomal detachment --> Decrease protein synthesis
Reversible Cell Injury
Decrease oxidatitive phosphorylation --> Severe membrane damage

1. Ca 2+ Increase
2. Cytoplasmic enzyme leak
Irreversible Cell Injury
A sequence of morphologic changes that follow cell death in living tissue
Necrosis
A specialized form of programmed cell death

An active process regulated by genes and involves RNA and protein synthesis

Cell shrinks in size and has eosinophilic cytoplasm
Apoptosis
A lack of an inflammatory response (differing from necrosis)
Apoptosis
(Most common)
Due to the denaturing and coagulation of protein within the cytoplasm.

Common in the most organs including the heart, liver, and kidney.
Coagulative Necrosis
Cellular destruction by hydrolic enzymes

Occurs in abscesses, brain infraction, pancreatic necrosis
Liquefactive Necrosis
Combination of coagulation and liquefaction necrosis

"Cottage-cheese like" appearance

Characteristic of TB
Caseous necrosis
The necrosis of immunology injury

ex. Henoch-Schonlein purpura, rheumatic heart disease, and SLE
Fibrinoid necrosis
Commonly seen in acute pancreatitis due to release of amylase and lipase
Fat necrosis
Dead tissue (gross term)

Common site- lower limbs, GI tract, gallbladder
Gangrenous necrosis
Microscopic pattern is coagulative necrosis

(Diabetic foot)
Dry gangrene
Microscopic pattern is liquefactive necrosis

The lack of blood flow causes some cells to die and leak fluid, which moistens the surrounding tissue
Wet gangrene
A type of wet gangrene that usually is caused by the bacterium called Clostridum
Gas gangrene
Damaged or worn-out cells commit "suicide"
Turn on their own enzymes inside the cell
Digest their own cell proteins and DNA
Then destroyed by WBCs
Apoptosis
Cell injury and DNA damage
Lack of hormones, cytokines, or growth factors
Stimulus for apoptosis
Inhibits apoptosis
bcl-2
Stimulates apoptosis

(Elevated by DNA injury, if DNA repair is impossible, this stimulates apoptosis)
p53
Embryogenesis (organogenesis and development)
Hormone dependent apoptosis (menstrual cycle)
Thymus (selective death of lymphocytes- shrinks after puberty)
Physiological examples of apoptosis
Viral infection (viral hepatitis)
Graft verus host disease
Cystic fibrosis (duct obstruction and pancreatic atrophy)
Carcinogenesis (follicular lymphoma by bcl-2 expression)
Pathological examples of apoptosis
Molecules with an unpaired electron in the outer electron shell

Extemely unstable and reactive

Can react with inorganic or organic chemicals damaging them or changing them

Normally removed from body by antioxidants
Free Radicals
Toxic chemicals induce cell injury by one of two general mechanisms
Chemical Injury
Example of a chemical that acts directly by combining with a critical molecule component
Mercury poisioning

(Mercury binds to the sulfhydryl groups of the cell membrane)
Examples of chemicals that are not intrinsically biologically active but must be converted to reactive toxic indirectly
CCl4 is converted by cytochrome P450 to the toxic free radical CCl3 which damages liver cells

Acetaminophen is converted by cytochrome P450 to FR, which binds to sulfhydryl group and damage liver cells.
Cells may adapt to the environment by undergoing changes in __________, _________, and _________.
size, number, and shape
Atrophy is seen as a decrease in cell _______.
size
Denervation will result in cellular _________.
atrophy
Hypertrophy is an _______ in cell size.
Increase
An increase in muscle mass associated with exercise is an example of ______.
Hypertrophy (physiologic)
An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue is known as ________.
Hyperplasia
Liver regrowth is an example of ________ hyperplasia.
compensatory
________ or ________ hyperplasia is due to excessive hormonal stimulation or excessive growth factors.
Pathologic or nonphysiologic
__________ represents a reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type.
Metaplasia
Metaplasia usually occurs in response to chronic _________ and _________ and allows for substitution of cells that are better able to survive stressful or harmful conditions.
irritation and inflammation
Deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cells that vary in size, shape, and organization is known as _________.
Dysplasia
Dysplasia is strongly implicated as a precursor of _______.
Cancer
Intracellular ________ represent the buildup of substances that cells cannot immediately use or eliminate.
accumulations
_________ radicals are highly reactive chemical species having an unpaired electron in the outer valence shell of the molecule.
Free
________ deprives the cell of oxygen and interrupts oxidative metabolism and the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Hypoxia
Reversible cellular injury is seen as either cellular ________ or _______ accumulation.
swelling or fatty
__________ differs from apoptosis in that it involves unregulated enzymatic digestion of cell components, loss of cell membrane integrity with uncontrolled release of products of cell death into the intracellular space, and initiation of the inflammatory response.
Necrosis
The increased ________ levels may inappropriately activate a number of enzymes with potentially damaging effects.
Calcium
Acidosis develops and denatures the enzymatic and structural proteins of the cell during _______ necrosis.
Coagulation
Occurs in normal tissues as the result of increased serum calcium levels.
Metastatic calcification
Oxygen-containing molecules that are highly reactive
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Natural and synthetic molecules that inhibit the reactions of ROS with biological structures
Antioxidants
Programmed cell death
Apoptosis
Macroscopic deposition of calcium salts in injured tissue
Dystrophic calcification
Ice crystal formation in cytosol
Temperature induced injury
Impaired oxygen delivery
Ischemia
Dead cells persist indefinitely as soft cheeselike debris
Caseous necrosis
Causes injury by changes in electron stability
Ionizing radiation
Term applied when a considerable mass of tissue undergoes necrosis
Gangrene
Five categories of cellular injury
Injury from physical agents, radiation injury, chemical injury, injury from biologic agents, and injury from nutritional imbalances
Three major mechanisms of cellular injury
free radical formation, hypoxia, and ATP deletion
Complete or partial loss of blood flow to a body part is:
Ischemia
Failure of an organ to reach full size or full level of maturity is:
Hypoplasia
Enormous enlargement of the heart may occur. Often this enlargement is the result of increased thickness of its muscle. Such enlargement is most likely the result of:
Hypertrophy
Is the principle underlying cause of benign prostatic enlargement in elderly men.
Hypertrophy
Commonly occurs in the ectocervix (the portion projecting into the vagina)
Metaplasia
The coagulative type is the commonest form.
Necrosis
May be a physiological process.
Apoptosis
Not a characteristic of reversible cell injury:

a. reduced oxidative phosphorylation
b. ATP depletion
c. Cellular swelling
d. Calcium ion influx
e. Ribosomal detachment
Calcium ion influx
Increase in the number of cell (mitosis) in an organ or tissue.
Hyperplasia
Increase in individual cell size in an organ or tissue.
Hypertrophy
Reversible change in which one adult cell is replaced by another adult cell type.
Metaplasia
Ischemia reduces oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, resulting in a decrease in ATP production. Which of the following would not follow as a morphologic consequence?

a. Increased anaerobic glycolysis
b. Increase in pH and glycogen
c. Decrease in protein synthesis
d. Influx of Ca++, H20, and Na+
e. Efflux of K+
Increase in pH and glycogen
Which of the following is not involved in free radical neutralization?

a. Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
b. Nitric oxide (NO)
c. Catalase
d. Glutathione peroxidase and reductase
e. Fenton (ferritin)
Nitic Oxide (NO)
Occurs as a result of release of activated pancreatic enzymes and can leave white, chalky deposits representing calcium soap.
Fat necrosis
Has a cheesy, yellow-white appearance at the area of necrosis and is encountered most often in foci of TB.
Causeous necrosis
All of the following are features of apoptosis except:

a. cell shrinkage
b. programmed cell death
c. affects only single cell or small groups
d. an inflammatory response
An inflammatory response
Activated Oxygen Species
Superoxide (SO)
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydroxyl radical