Chapter 2

Front 1

Natural Selection

Back 1

According to Charles Darwin, the process by which inherited characteristics that lead to an advantage in adapting to the environment are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations through genetic material

Front 2

behavioral Neuroscience

Back 2

a general term encompassing a range of disciplines such as neurology, psychology and psychiatry that focus on the role o the nervous system, especially the brain, in understanding behavior.

Front 3

stmulus

Back 3

environmental feature that provokes a response from an organism.

Front 4

receptors

Back 4

specialized cells that are sensitive to specific types of stimulus energy.

Front 5

Central Nervous System

Back 5

division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Front 6

peripheral nervous system

Back 6

division of the nervous system that consists of the neural fibers lying outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Front 7

neurons

Back 7

basic cells of the nervous system

Front 8

somatic nervous system

Back 8

division of the peripheral nervous system that consists of nerves coming from the receptors to the brain and spinal cord, as well as nerves that go from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles. Part of the PNS

Front 9

Afferent (sensory) nerves

Back 9

Nerves that carry info from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain

Front 10

Efferent (motor) nerves

Back 10

nerves that carry info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles.

Front 11

autonomic nervous system

Back 11

division of the peripheral nervous system that involved in the control of bodily functioning through organs and glands

Front 12

sympathetic nervous system

Back 12

Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for mobilizing the body in times of stress, preparing organisms for flight or fight

Front 13

Parasympathetic nervous system

Back 13

subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for returning the body to a resting or balanced state.

Front 14

reflex

Back 14

automatic behavior in response to a specific stimulus

Front 15

endocrine system

Back 15

system of glands that produce and secrete chemicals called hormones that can have effects some distance from the gland that secrete the hormone.

Front 16

Pancreas

Back 16

an endocrine gland that lies between the stomach and the small intestine; the primary hormone released, insulin, regulates levels of glucose in the body.

Front 17

Hypothalams

Back 17

gland and brain structure that sends signals to the pituitary gland and contains key centers for fighting, feeling, sexual activity and hunger

Front 18

pituitary gland

Back 18

called the master gland because its secretions control many other glands; this endocrine gland is located in the brain below the thalamus and hypothalamus

Front 19

thyroid gland

Back 19

endocrine gland located just below the larynx that releases hormones including thyroxine, which has widespread effects throughout the body via its effects on metabolic rate

Front 20

Adrenal glands

Back 20

pair of glands located at the top of each of the kidneys they release a range of hormones including epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 21

dendrite

Back 21

short, branchlike structure of a neuron that receives info from receptors and other neurons

Front 22

Soma

Back 22

cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus

Front 23

axon

Back 23

elongated part of a neuron that transmits into to other neurons, muscles, and glands

Front 24

terminal buttons

Back 24

component of a neuron located at the ends of the axon where neurotransmitters are stored before being released into the synapse

Front 25

myelin sheath

Back 25

whitish, fatty protein substance, composed of glial cells, that covers some axons and increases the speed of neural transmission

Front 26

Glial cell

Back 26

special type of cell found in the nervous system that forms the myelin sheath, which increases the speed of neural conduction by providing insulation of the axons.

Front 27

multiple sclerosis

Back 27

disease caused by degeneration of the myelin in the central nervous system. Plaques from in the myelin sheath interfere with neural transmission, resulting in a variety of effects, depending on their location in the body, but most often affecting motor movement.

Front 28

synapse

Back 28

site where two or more neurons interact but do not touch; neurotransmitters are released into the space in order to continue neural impulses

Front 29

neurotransmitters

Back 29

chemical substances that are stored in terminal buttons and released into the synapse between two neurons to carry signals from one neuron to the next

Front 30

Dopamine

Back 30

controls arousal levels and plays a significant role in motor movement. Addictions to drugs etc.

Front 31

serotonin

Back 31

plays a role in weight regulation, sleep, depression, suicide, OCD, aggression and a rage of other disorders and behavioral problems.

Front 32

Acetylcholine

Back 32

controls activity in the brain areas related to attn, hearing, learning and memory. People with Alzheimers typically have low dosages of ACh.

Front 33

Glutamate

Back 33

widely distributed excitatory neurotransmitter. Engage in passing along information. Too much glutamate may cause death, strokes, head injuries and some seizure disorders.

Front 34

Antagonists

Back 34

drugs that oppose or inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmiter

Front 35

neuromodulators

Back 35

chemicals that may have a wide-spread or general effect on the release of neurotransmitters

Front 36

endorphines

Back 36

substances produced by the body that block pain; these substances are opium-like chemicals.

Front 37

Resting state

Back 37

electrical charge of a neuron when it is not firing

Front 38

action potential

Back 38

reversal in electrical charge of a neuron that occurs when the neuron fires

Front 39

EEG

Back 39

device that monitors and records electrical activity of the brain in the form of a graphic representation of brain waves

Front 40

PET

Back 40

imaging technique that involves monitoring the metabolic activity of the brain.

Front 41

CT or CAT

Back 41

imaging technique that involves the production of a large number of x-rays interpreted by a computer

Front 42

MRI

Back 42

Imagine technique that involves the use of radio waves and a strong magnetic field to produce a signal that can be interpreted by a computer

Front 43

MRI

Back 43

a modification of the standard MRI procedure that allows both structural and temporal images of the brain to be gathered.

Front 44

Hindbrain

Back 44

oldest of the 3 main divisions of the brain; its major structures are the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Front 45

Meduall

Back 45

structure located in the hind brain that regulates automatic responses such as breathing, swallowing and blood circulation

Front 46

Pons

Back 46

structure of the hindbrain that connects the two halves of the brainl has nuclei that are important for sleep and arousal.

Front 47

midbrain

Back 47

major division of the brain that contains fibers known as the reticular formation

Front 48

brain stem

Back 48

the oldest part of the brain beings at the top of the spinal cord and contains brain centers responsible for basic survival activities

Front 49

reticular formation

Back 49

nerve fibers passing through the mid brain that control arousal

Front 50

forebrain

Back 50

major division of the brain that consists o subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex

Front 51

Corpus callosum

Back 51

wide bands of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

Front 52

cerebral cortex(cerebrum)

Back 52

the convoluted (wrinkled) outer layer of the brain.

Front 53

limbic system

Back 53

system of interconnected subcortical structures that regulates emotions and motivated behaviors such as hunger, thirst, aggression and sexual behavior

Front 54

thalamus

Back 54

subcortical structure that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain

Front 55

frontal lobes

Back 55

the largest lobes of the cortex that contain motor strip, Broca's area(speech) and areas responsible for decision making

Front 56

Parietal lobes

Back 56

loves located behind the frontal lobes and containing the sensory cortex

Front 57

Temporal lobes

Back 57

lobes responsible for hearing and understanding speech

Front 58

Optical lobes

Back 58

lobes located at the back of the brain that are responsible for processing visual stimuli

Front 59

aphasia

Back 59

general term for problems in understanding producing spoken or written language.

Front 60

Apraxia

Back 60

deficits in nonverbal skills

Front 61

Sensation

Back 61

activation of receptors by stimuli in the environment

Front 62

Perception

Back 62

the process of organizing making sense of sensory info

Front 63

Transduction

Back 63

conversion of stimuli received by the receptors into a form(patterns of neural impulses) that can be used by the nervous system.

Front 64

Adaptaion

Back 64

loss of sensitivity to a stimulus by the receptors as a result of continued presentation of that stimulus

Front 65

Weber's law

Back 65

the observations that the amount of stimulus increase or decrease required to notice a change, divided by the original stimulation, is a constant

Front 66

Just noticeable difference

Back 66

smallest difference between 2 stimuli that is noticeable 50% of the time by participants

Front 67

Absolute threshold

Back 67

minimum amount of energy required for conscious detection of a stimulus 50% of the time by participants

Front 68

Differential threshold

Back 68

Smallest amount of stimulation that must be added to or subtracted from an existing stimulus for a person to be able to detect a change 50% of the time.

Front 69

signal detection theory

Back 69

the contention that the threshold varies with the nature of the stimulus (signal) and with background stimulation

Front 70

Subliminal stimuli

Back 70

stimuli that are below the threshold of consciousness

Front 71

wavelength

Back 71

physical length of light wave measure in nanometers

Front 72

amplitude

Back 72

strength or tensity of stimulus (brightness, loudness.)

Front 73

saturation

Back 73

trueness of purity of a color

Front 74

Radiant light

Back 74

visible energy emitted by an object.

Front 75

reflected light

Back 75

energy that is reflected by objects

Front 76

Accommodation

Back 76

in focusing, action of the ciliary muscles to change the shape of the lens

Front 77

retina

Back 77

tissue that contains the visual receptors, located at the back of the eye

Front 78

bipolar cells

Back 78

cells in the retina that connect the receptors to ganglion cells

Front 79

ganglion cells

Back 79

cells in the retina whose axons from the optic nerve

Front 80

blind spot

Back 80

location at which the optic nerve leaves the eyeball; contains no receptors

Front 81

optic chiasm

Back 81

point at which the optic nerve fibers from each eye join; fibers from the nasal half of the retina cross to the opposite hemisphere of the brain

Front 82

rods

Back 82

peripheral retina detects black white and grey. Low light or twilight

Front 83

cone

Back 83

light receptor that is located in the center of the retina. clustered around the fobea.
for fine detail and color
daylight or well lit conditons

Front 84

fovea

Back 84

indented spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones

Front 85

trichromatic theory

Back 85

color vision theory stating that there are three types of color receptors.

Front 86

opponent-process theory

Back 86

color vision theory stressing the paring of color experiencing activation of one process can inhibit its partner

Front 87

color afterimage

Back 87

perception of a color that is not really present. occures after viewing the opposite of complementary color

Front 88

monochromat

Back 88

person who can only see shades of gray; caused by a form of color deficiency.

Front 89

dichromat

Back 89

person who has trouble seeing one of the primary colors. caused by a form of color deficiency

Front 90

audtion

Back 90

sense of hearing

Front 91

hertz

Back 91

unit of measure of the frequency of a sound wave

Front 92

decibel

Back 92

unit of measure of the amount of energy prodcuing the vibrations we perceive as a sound

Front 93

timbre

Back 93

purity of a sound wave

Front 94

ossicles

Back 94

3 bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) located in the middle ear that conduct sound from the outer to the inner ear

Front 95

oval window

Back 95

structure that connects the middle ear with the cochlea of the inner ear; its movement causes fluid in the cochlea to move

Front 96

basilar membrane

Back 96

membrane located in the cochlea of the inner ear; movement of the cochlear fluid causes it to vibrate

Front 97

organ of Corti

Back 97

structure located on the basilar membrane of the inner ear that contains the auditory receptors

Front 98

tectorial membrane

Back 98

membrane located above the ogran of Cort in the inner ear.

Front 99

Frequency theory

Back 99

theory stating that the basilar membrane vibrates at different rates to create the perception of different pitches

Front 100

conduction deafness

Back 100

deafness caused by problewms associated with transmitting sounds through the outer and middle ears

Front 101

sensorineural deafness

Back 101

deafness caused by damage to the inner ear, especially the hair cells

Front 102

central deafness

Back 102

deafness resulting from disease and tumors in the auditory pathways or auditory cortex of the brain

Front 103

gustation

Back 103

sense of taste

Front 104

papillae

Back 104

bumps or protrusions distributed on the tongue and throat that are lined with taste buds

Front 105

microvilli

Back 105

hairs that project from taste receptors

Front 106

olfcation

Back 106

sense of smell

Front 107

vestibular sense

Back 107

system located in the inner ear that allows us to make adjustments to bodily movements and psotures

Front 108

semicircular canals

Back 108

fluid-filled passages in the inner ear that detect movement of the head

Front 109

kinesthetic sense

Back 109

system of receptors located in the muscles and joints that provides information about the location of the extremities

Front 110

cutaneous senses

Back 110

system of receptors located in the skin that provides information about touch, pressure, pain and temperature.

Front 111

gate control theory

Back 111

theory of pain stating that the release of substance P in the spinal cord produces the sensation of pain

Front 112

cutaneous receptors

Back 112

Receptors in the skin that provide sensory information

Front 113

features analysis theory

Back 113

theory of pattern perception stating that we perceive basic elements of an object and assemble them mentally to create the complete object.

Front 114

Perceptual constancy

Back 114

The tendency to perceive the size and shape of an object as constant even though its retinal image changes

Front 115

shape constancy

Back 115

perceiving the shape of an object as constant despite changes in its retinal image

Front 116

size constancy

Back 116

the tendency to perceive the size of an object as constant despite changes in its retinal image

Front 117

binocular cues

Back 117

cues for depth perception that involve the use of both eyes

Front 118

monocular cues

Back 118

cues for depth perception that incolve the use of only one eye

Front 119

binocular disparity

Back 119

the diff between the images seen by the two eyes

Front 120

Proximity

Back 120

nearness in place, time, order, occurrence, or relation.

Front 121

similarity

Back 121

gestalt principal stating that perceptual elements that are similar are seen as a group

Front 122

apparent motion

Back 122

illusion of movement in a stationary object

Front 123

perceptual hypothesis

Back 123

inference about the nature of stimuli received from the environment

Front 124

visual search

Back 124

identifying the presence of a target stimulus among a group of other distractor items

Front 125

circadian rhythms

Back 125

internal biological changes that occur on a daily schedule

Front 126

Polysomnography

Back 126

instrument that amplifies and records signals associated with biological changes taken during a night in a sleep lboratory

Front 127

non-rem sleep

Back 127

sleep consists primarily of stages 3 and 4(deep sleep) early in the night and stage 2 later on

Front 128

slow-wave sleep

Back 128

deep sleep of nrem stages 3 and 4, characterized by delta waves

Front 129

REM rebound

Back 129

an increase in the typical amount of rem sleep following reduction of REM sleep owing to sleep deprivation or the use of certain drugs that reduce rem sleep

Front 130

hypersomnias

Back 130

sleep disorders characterzed by excessive daytime sleepiness

Front 131

sleep apnea

Back 131

sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleepl most prevalent in older overweight men

Front 132

parasomnias

Back 132

sleep disorders which occur more frequently in children and often disappear without treatment

Front 133

sleepwalking

Back 133

occurs in stage 4 of sleep

Front 134

enuresis

Back 134

bedwetting, a sleep disorder that occurs primarily in children and is considered a disorder of arousal that is likely to improve with maturation of the CNS

Front 135

Sleep terror

Back 135

occurs in stage 4

Front 136

manifest content

Back 136

according to freud the dream as reported by the dreamer

Front 137

latent content

Back 137

according to freud, the deeper underlying meaning of a dream, connected by symbols to the manifest content

Front 138

activation-synthesis hypothesis

Back 138

explanation of dreams that suggests that they result when the cortex seeks to explain the high level of neuronal activity occurring during REM sleep

Front 139

Dissociation

Back 139

splitting of conscious awareness that is believe to play a role in hypnotic pain reduction

Front 140

psychoactive substances

Back 140

chemicals that affect consciousness, perception, mood and behavior

Front 141

brabiturates

Back 141

depressant drugs that are used to induce sleep but can be deadly when combined with booze

Front 142

stimulants

Back 142

drugs that increase the activity of the CNS

Front 143

opiates

Back 143

a group of naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that have properties similar to those of opium and thus reduce pain

Front 144

biomedical therapies

Back 144

a set of treatments for mental illness that include drugs, psychosurgery and electroconvulsive therapy

Front 145

psychological therapies

Back 145

treatment for psychological disorders such as psychotherapy or therapies based on classical or operant conditioning principlces.

Front 146

psychotherapy

Back 146

a special relationship between a distressed person and a trained therapist in which the therapist aids the client in the developing awareness and changing his or her thinking feeling and behavior

Front 147

Psychoanalytic therapy

Back 147

threatement of maladaptive behavior developed by freud. Its goal is to uncover unconscious conflicts and feelings and bring them to the conscious level

Front 148

free association

Back 148

a technique in which the patient is asked to say whatever comes to mind without censoring anyhting

Front 149

resistance

Back 149

stage of psychoanalysis in which blocking of free associations occurs because critical unconscious material is close to conscious awareness

Front 150

transference

Back 150

in psychoanalysis, the patient's positive or negative reaction to the therpist, which is believe to reflect the patients relationship to a significant person outside of therapy.

Front 151

Humanistic therapies

Back 151

therapies that emphasize the present and the ability of clients to solve their own problems once they are able to accept themselves.

Front 152

client-centered therapy

Back 152

therapy designed to create an environment in which the client is able to find solutions to his or her problems.

Front 153

Gestalt therapy

Back 153

humanistic form of therapy developed by fritz Perls in which therapists may frustrate and challenge clients to lead them toward self-acceptance

Front 154

cognitive therapies

Back 154

therapies designed to change cognitions in order to eliminate maladaptive behaviors

Front 155

rational-emotive behavior therapy

Back 155

a cognitive therapy which the therapist challenges and questions the clients irrational ideas

Front 156

systematic desensitization

Back 156

behavioral technique based on a classical conditioning that is used to treat phobias; technique usually combines training in relaxtion with exposure to imagined scences related to a phobia

Front 157

Aversion therapy

Back 157

classical conditional technique for reducing or eliminating behavior with an unpleasant stimulus

Front 158

Token economy

Back 158

technique that reinforces desirable heaviors with tokens which can be redeemed for other reinforcers especially primary reinforcers.

Front 159

tardive dyskinesia

Back 159

a serious adverse effect of antipsychotic drugs characterized by involuntary motor symptoms such as lip smacking