Chapter 14- Animal Phys

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Nervous system

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organized constellatio of cells (neurons and suppor cells) into circuits to elicit coordinated adapted response

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Nervous system is made up of two divisions:

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1) CNS
2) PNS

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CNS def

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spinal cord + brain

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two types of neurons and roles

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1) sensory neurons= convey info to CNS
2)motor neurons= convey info from CNS to control muscles or effectors

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effectors

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organ, tissue, or cellt aht acts and carries out functions like motion or secretion
EX: muslces and glands

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PNS def

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all the process and cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons outside the CNS
ES: enteric NS and autonomic ganglia

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Nerve

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in the PNS that consist of the axons of multiple neurons bundled together

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PNS divided into 2 parts:

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1) somatic NS
2) autonomic NS

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somatic NS def.

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controls skeletal muscles-->somatic effectors

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autonomic NS

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controls autonomic effectors defined to include all neuron-controlled effectors other than striated muscle like cardiac muscle and smooth muscles

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Nervous systems consist of neurons organized into functional circuits...example?

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cockroach- cellular elements sense env and then send signals to other cells in CNS and control and coordinate cells of effectors to generate output

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sensory receptor cells tranduce what?

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env. stimuli into electrical signals

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interneurons do what?

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integrate signals and generate an integral pattern of impulses

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simplest NS is...

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nerve net

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nervenet

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neurons dispersed in thin layer and randomly organized
- bidirections transmission of impulses

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example of animals w/ nerve nets

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jellysfish, anemones, hydra

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after trends of bilateral symmetry trends of what occur?

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1) increased centralization
2) complexity of the NS

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echinoderm NS?

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simple and uncentralized NS

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two major trends characterize the evolution of NS in bilaterally symmetrical animals:

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1) centralization
2) cephalization

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centralization

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structural organization in which integrating neurons are collected into central integrating areas rather than just being randomly dispersed

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cephalization

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concentration of the nervous structures and functions in the head region

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most ancient phylum to have bilateral symmetry

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platyhelmintes-- flatworms

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nerve cords

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distinct aggregations of neurons into longitudinally arranged clusters and tracts to constitute a distinct CNS

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what make their appearance as NS become more complex?

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internueorns

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brain

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anterior enlargement of the CNS that allows it to receive env info from sense organs w/ minimum of neural connections

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in arthropods, the CNS consist of what

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ganglia

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def of ganglia

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swellings containing discrete aggregations of nerve bodies and processes

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chained ganglia linked by what?

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connectives

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connectives def

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paired bundles of axons that link chained ganglia

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inner core of each ganglia consist of:

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1) neuropile= region of synaptic contacts
2) tracts= region of bundle of axons

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4 terms for bundles of nerves depending on location

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1) nerve= PNS
2) connective= b/w ganglia in CNS
3) tract= w/in ganglia
4) commisure= b/w left and right sides

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as compared w/ arthropods, the vertebrate CNS does not have what?

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connectives

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vertebral CNS shape?

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continuous column of neural tissues w/ cell bodies and synaptic areas intermingled

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vertebrate nerve cord characteristics?

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dorsal and hollow
not connected by connectives
do not have ganglia

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arthopods have what kind of nerve cord

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ventral and solid

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in arthropods what does spinal cord have coming out of it

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nerves

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gray matter

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cell bodies, synapses, and unmyelinated neural processes

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white matter

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myelinated tracts

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afferent neurons

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carry nerve impulses toward CNS

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efferent neurons

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carry nerve impulses away from CNS

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cranial nerves

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nerves connected to brain

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spinal nerves

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nerves connected to spinal cord

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role of cerebral cortex

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higher sensory, motor, and integrative functions

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role of hippocampus

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memory and learning

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role of basal ganglia

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motor control

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role of limbic system

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emotions

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role of thalamus

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major sensory relay

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role of hypothalamus

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homeostatic and endocrine regulation, circadian clock

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superior colliculus

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visual integration

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inferior colliculus

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auditory integration

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role of cerebellum

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motor control

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role of potine motor nuclei

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descending motor control

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role of medulla

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autonomic and respiratory control

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vertebrate brain has 3 parts

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1) forebrain
2) midbrain
3)hindbrain

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hindbrain has 3 parts

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pons, medulla, cerebellum

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midbrain parts

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mesencephalon

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forebrain has

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cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, olfactory

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five principles of functional organization apply to most vert and mammal brains :

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1) brain function if localized
2) brain have maps
3) size matters
4) vert. brain evolution has involved repeated expansion of forebrain
5) plasticity of neural circuits

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Principle 1:

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brain function localized:
- neurons in diff regions have diff roles
- seen by PET and fMRI
-wernicke's area= understanding spoken lang.
-broca's area= grammatical speech

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Principle 2:

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brain have maps
- brain maintains info about anatomical organization
-somatotopic maps can show somatosensory area or motor area
- face and hands = HUGE

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Principle 3:

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size matters
- more neurons in brain area, more complex integration
- expansion of cerebral cortex allow types of neural function-->lang

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more evolved means...

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how long lineage evolving

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principle 4:

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vert. brain evolution has involved repeated expansion of forebrains
- birds and mammals have evolved more complex forebrain- cerebral cort.

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principle 5:

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plasticity of neural circuits
- syanpses are plastic-->change w/ dev, maturity, experience, learning
-short term memory= disrupted by electrical shock or concussion
-long term memory= more permanent-->NMDM receptors
-plasticity w/ learning and memory

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somatic system

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part of PNS that controls the skeletal muscles (somatic effectors)
- focuses of body movements, speech, and breathing
-controls most observable behavior
-somatic sensory receptors: touch, hearing, etc.

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mammals have how many cranial nerves?

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12

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autonomic system controls what?

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autonomic effectors
-smooth muscle-->gut wall, blood vessels, eyes, spleen, lungs, penis
-cardiac region -->pacemake region
-exocrine glands-->sweat and tear glands
-endocrine glands->adrenal medulla that secrete epinephrine
-acid secreting cells of stomach
-brown adipose tissue->heat producing
-swim bladders of color changing fish

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three division of ANS

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1) sympathetic
2) parasympathetic
3) enteric

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sympathetic and parasymp. link the CNS w/ what?

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autonomic effectors

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enteric system

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contained in walls of the gut and regulate the gut

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ANS pathways chracterized by what kind of synpase

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peripheral- b/w the CNS and effector tissue

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preganglionic neurons

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CNS to ganglia

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postganglionic neurons

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ganglia to effectors

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in parasympathetic ganglia ganglia are located where?

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near effectors

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in sympathetic division, ganglia are located where?

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near spinal cord

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nerves of parasympathetic and sympathetic are associated w/ different regions of what?

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CNS in mammals

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parasympathetic deals with what regions of CNS

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cranial and sacral-->crainiosacral division
-oculomtor, facial, vagus, glossophary,

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sympathetic deals with what regions of CNS

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thoracic and lumbar (thoracolumbar)

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paravertebral ganglia occur?

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segmentally along length of spine

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sympathetic chain

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the paravertebral ganglia form chain on each side of vertebral colum

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parasympathetic what what size pregang. and postgang?

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- long pregang and short postgag.

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sympathetic what what size pregang. and postgang?

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-short pregang. and long postgang.

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sympathetic division roles?

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-dilates pupils
-constricts blood vessels
-inhibits salivation
-relaxes airways
-accelerates heartbeat
-stimulations secretion sweat gland
-inhibits digestion
-inhibits hormone and enzyme release
-stimulates glucose production and release
-stimulates secretion of epin. and norephinephrine
-inhibits gut motility and secretions
-relaxes urinary bladder
-stimulates orgasm

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actions of the parasympathetic division...all list them

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-constricts pupils
-stimulates salivation
-contricts airways
-slow heartbeat
-stimulates digestion
-stimulates gallbladder to release bile
-modulates immune reponse
-stimulates gut motility and secretions
-dilates blood vessels
-stimualates urinary bladder to contract
-stimulate clitoral arousal

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parasympathetic release what chemial NT

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acetylcholine-->called cholinergergic

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sympathetic postgang. release

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catecholamines-->norepinephrine-->
called adrenergic

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slogan of sympathetic

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fight or flight

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slogan of parasympathetic

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rest and digest

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antagonistic relationship of sympathetic and parasympathetic example

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pacemaker of heart:
- sympathetic: increase heartrate
-parasympthatic:decrease hearrate

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what divison tends to promote proccesses that restore body's reserves of energy

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parasymp

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what divison tends to promote mobilizing body eneryg reserves

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sympath

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enteric division of ANs

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elaborate networks of neurons located entirely w/in walls of gut

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what does enteric division of ANS control?

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- peristalsis: propel food down esoph
-segmentation: clams off to circular areas to mix contents and increase SA

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actions of the parasympathetic division...all list them

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-constricts pupils
-stimulates salivation
-contricts airways
-slow heartbeat
-stimulates digestion
-stimulates gallbladder to release bile
-modulates immune reponse
-stimulates gut motility and secretions
-dilates blood vessels
-stimualates urinary bladder to contract
-stimulate clitoral arousal

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parasympathetic release what chemial NT

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acetylcholine-->called cholinergergic

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sympathetic postgang. release

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catecholamines-->norepinephrine-->
called adrenergic

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slogan of sympathetic

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fight or flight

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slogan of parasympathetic

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rest and digest

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antagonistic relationship of sympathetic and parasympathetic example

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pacemaker of heart:
- sympathetic: increase heartrate
-parasympthatic:decrease hearrate

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what divison tends to promote proccesses that restore body's reserves of energy

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parasymp

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what divison tends to promote mobilizing body eneryg reserves

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sympath

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enteric division of ANs

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elaborate networks of neurons located entirely w/in walls of gut

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what does enteric division of ANS control?

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- peristalsis: propel food down esoph
-segmentation: clams off to circular areas to mix contents and increase SA

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example of graph of daily rhythm of physciological functions of human

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able to keep track of time endogenously but internal clock not able to stay precisely syn. w/ outside time

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daily rhythm of functions of human graphs:

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early in study, rectal temp and excretion was highest before midnight and man when to sleep at midnight, but then at day 13, rectal temp and exretion highest after midnight and he went to sleep more than 12 hours after midnight

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biological clocks

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physiological timing mechanisms that rhymically modulate functions of cells, tissues, and organs and endow an animal w/ intrinsic temporal organization inde. from env.

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biological clocks controlled by

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NS->neural and neuroendocrine output

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rhythm

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regular cyclical variation in function

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endogenous

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rhythms that continue in the absense of env info about time

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period

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amount of time b/w particular part of rhythm in one cycle and same part in next cycle

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circadian rhythm

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endogenous rhythm that has period of about a day

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circadian rhythm appears in what types of organisms?

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prokaryotes and eurkaryotes

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diurnal species

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locomotor activity and other physiological variable increase during DAY

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in phase

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if two rhythms occur simulaneously

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example of in phase

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chaffinch's activity is IN PHASE w/ light cycle

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to show a rhtyhm is endogenous, experimenter must do what?

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remove the light/dark cycle (signal

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period of a rhythm is about how many hours?

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23

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free-running circadian rhythms

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have periods close to but not exactly 24 hours

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flying squirrel example of rhythms

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light-dark cycle synchronizes the rhythm-->in absense of light, endogenous rhythm persists but b/w period not 24 hours, free running rhythms drifts to occur later and later each day

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entrainment

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when a biological rhythm is brought into phase w/ env. rhythm

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example of entrainment

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jet lag-->bringing in light/dark of new area used by entrainment

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zeitgeber

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environmental cue that is capable of entraining a biological rhythm

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example of zeitgeber

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darkness each night for flying squirrles

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timekeeping mechanism of cell depends on alternation b/w enhanced and inhibited expression of what?

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clock genes

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enhanced expression of clock genes does what?

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produces a protein which turns down expression of that gene

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proteins destoryed at steady rate allow for what?

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enhanced gene expression to resume

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universal model of biological timekeeping:

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1. clock genes upregulated by positive transciption factors
2. upregulated clock genes produce products (proteins) that act as neg elements
3. neg elements impede production of positive elements
4. neg elements destroyed

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biological clocks controlling circadian rhythm in vert is located in what of brain?

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superchiasmatic nucleus

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major adv of biolgoical clocks is?

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that they are predictive so that animals can anticipate and prepare for upcoming event

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if the superchiasmatic nucleus destroyed what happens?

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no circadian rhythm

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one important output of the superchiasmatic nucleus clock controls what?

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pineal gland (can also act as third eye)

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pineal gland produces what hormone?

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melatonin

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melatonin is also called what?

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darkness hormone-->because secreted at night in mammals

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circannual rhythms

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endogenous rhythms that are approxiamtely a year

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circatidal rhtyhms

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endogenous rhtyhms that have tidal cycle in length

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interval or hourglass timers

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permit parts of the day to be measured
ex: how long pigeons are supposed to incubate their eggs for