Chapter 12 (Social Psych)

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Social Psychology

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How your thoughts feelings and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by social and physical environment. This social situation can include being alone, in the presence of others, or in front of the crowd of onlookers.

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Sense of self

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Involves you as a social being who has been shaped by your interactions with others and by the social environment including the culture

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Evolutionary psychology

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Is based on the premise that certain psychological processes and behavior patterns evolved over hundreds of thousands of years.

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Social cognition

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Refers to how we form impressions of other people how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes.

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Social influence

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Focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people and by situational factors.

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Person perception

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Refers to the mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics of other people.

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4 principles on person perception

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1. your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them not by who they really are.

2. your self perception also influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions.

3. your goals in a particular situation determines the amount and kinds of information you collect about others.

4. in every situation you evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act within that particular context.

Basically: The perceptions we have of others, our self perception, our goals, and the social norms for that context.

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Social norms

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unwritten rules, expectations, for appropriate behavior in that particular social situation.

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Halo effect

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Initial information tends to create a halo around person and it becomes harder to notice new information that might conflict with the initial judgement.

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Social categorization

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Is a mental process of classifying people into groups on the basis of common characteristics

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Explicit cognition

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Refers to the deliberate conscious mental process involving perception judgments decisions and reasoning.

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Implicit cognition

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Describes the mental processes associated with automatic unconscious social evaluations.

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Implicit personality theory

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Assuming that certain types of people share certain traits and behaviors.

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Attribution

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Is the process of inferring the cause of someone's behavior including your own. Also refers to the explanation you make for particular behavior.

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Fundamental attribution error

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The tendency to spontaneously attribute the behavior of others internal personal characteristics while ignoring or under estimating the role of external situational factors.

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Explaining our own behavior: actor observer bias

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More likely to explain our own behavior using external situational attributions.

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Blaming the victim

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The tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it.

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Hindsight bias

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The tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event

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Just world hypothesis

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The assumption that the world is fair and that therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one's own behavior to internal causes and unsuccessful outcomes to external situational causes.

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Attitude

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A learned tendency to evaluate some object person or issue in particular way. such evaluations may be positive and negative or ambivalent

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Three components of attitude

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1. and attitude may have a cognitive component: your thoughts and conclusions about a given topic or object.

2. and attitude may have an emotional or effective component.

3. And attitude may have a behavioral component in which attitudes are reflected in action.

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Cognitive dissonance

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And unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal (dissonance) that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions (cognitions) are inconsistent; typically results from the awareness that attitudes and behavior are in conflict. You change your attitude to make it consistent with your behavior

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Prejudice

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A negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific social group. People from different groups, such as from different racial and ethnic groups are far more alike than they are different. Any differences that may exist between members of different groups are far smaller than differences among various members of the same group.

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Stereotype

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A cluster of characteristics that are attribute it to members of the specific social group or category. Stereotypes simplify social information so that we can sort out process and remember information about other people more easily

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In group

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Refers to the group or groups to which we belong "us"

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Outgroup

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Refers to the group or groups of which we are not a member "them"

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2 Important patterns characterize our views of in groups versus out groups

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1. we typically see the members of our in group, as being quite varied despite having enough features in common to belong to the same group

2. we tend to see members of the out group as much more similar to one another even in areas that have little to do with the criteria for group membership

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Outgroup homogeneity effect

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Seeing members of the outgroup as much more similar to one another even in areas that have little to do with the criteria for group membership

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In group bias

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Tendency to make favorable positive attributions for behaviors by members of our in group and unfavorable negative attribution for behaviors by members of the out group

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How can we account for the extreme emotions that often characterize prejudice against out group members

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One theory holds that prejudice and intergroup hostility increase when different groups are competing for scarce resources whether jobs oil water or political power. People are often prejudiced against groups that are perceived as threatening important in group norms and values

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Implicit attitudes

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Evaluations that are automatic unintentional and difficult to control.

The most widely used test to measure implicit attitudes and preferences is implicit Association test or IAT: is a computer-based test that measures the degree to which you associate particular groups of people with specific characteristics or attributes

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overcoming prejudice

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The Robbers cave experiment and the jigsaw classroom. Lessons from Robber's cave and the jigsaw classroom have been used to reduce prejudice and conflict among ethnic and religious groups around the world.

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Conformity

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Occurs when you adjust your opinion judgment or behavior so that it matches that of other people or the norms of social group or situation.

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Why do we sometimes find ourselves conforming to the larger group

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Or desire to be liked and accepted by the group which is referred to as normative social influence.

Our desire to be right. When we're uncertain aren't out our own judgment we may look to the group as a source of accurate information which is called informational social influence

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Obedience

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Is a performance of the behavior in response to direct command

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Stanley Milgram

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Electric shock experiments

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Solomon Asch

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The line judgment task

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Forces that influenced subjects to continue obeying the experimenter's orders

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-Previously well-established mental framework to obey

-the situation or context in which the obedience occurred

-the gradual repetitive escalation of the task

-experimenters behavior and reassurances

-the physical and psychological separation from the learner

-confident that the learner was actually receiving shocks

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Altruism

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When we help another person with no expectation of personal benefit

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Prosocial behavior

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Altruistic actions fall under the broader heading of prosocial behavior which describes any behavior that helps another person whatever the underlying motive

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factors that increase the likelihood of bystanders helping

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-that feel good do good effect

-feeling guilty

-seeing others who are willing to help

-perceiving the other person as deserving help

-knowing how to help

-A personalized relationship

-A dangerous situation

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Factors that decreased the likelihood of bystanders helping

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-the presence of other people: bystander effect

1. the presence of other people created diffusion of responsibility

2. bystander effect seems to occur because each of us is motivated to some extent by the desire to behave in socially acceptable way and to appear correct

-being in a big city or a very small town

-vague or ambiguous situations

-when the personal cost for helping out weighs the benefits

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Aggression

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Any verbal or physical behavior intended to cause harm to other people

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Social loafing

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The tendency to expend less effort on a task when it is a group effort. Can be reduced or eliminated when the group is composed of people we know, when we are members of a highly valued group, or the task is meaningful or unique

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social striving

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Individuals worked harder when they were in groups than when they were alone. Japan, China, Israel. Prominent in collectivistic cultures.

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Social facilitation

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The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance

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Deindividuation

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Can occur when increased arousal due to the presence of others is combined with diffusion of responsibility and anonymity. Deindividuation can lead to antisocial behavior, but it can be reduced if self-awareness is increased.

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persuasion

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The deliberate attempt to influence the attitude or behavior of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice.