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38 Cards in this Set
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Louis Blanc
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Most notable "social" republican who was a part of the provisional government of 10 men, pending election by all France of a Constituent Assembly that would write the new constitution for the second French Republic; urged the Provisional Government to push through a bold economic and social program w/o delay; but the "social" republicans were the minority in the government (though not public); ideas were very much watered down in the application; wanted a Ministry of Progress to organize a network of establishments that he had projected in his writings, though the government created a more limited Labor Commission and system of shops that were "national" aka the National Workshops; the N.W. were established as a political concession to the "social" republicans, but no significant work was ever assigned them for fear of competition with private enterprise and dislocation of the economic system
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General Cavaignac
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All power was given to this man during the June Days of Paris, as well as the regular army; virtual dictator over France and the Constituent Assembly; after June Days became a candidate for the executive position of president; lost to Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Louis Napoleon Bonaparte
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Elected as president of France in December of 1848 by a landslide; nephew of the great Napoleon, father had been king of Holland; assumed headship of the Bonaparte family when Napoleon's own son had died; resolved to restore the glories of the empire; attempted to take power twice before and failed; became a friend of the common people and a believer in order, or supposed to be, anyway; with the Assembly at first tried to conjure away the specter of socialism with which republicanism itself was now clearly associated; Assembly took away universal male suffrage; indispensable to conservatives; urged the restoration of universal suffrage to win over radicals; controlled military, police, and bureaucracy through personal ministers, made Assembly look bad; dissolved Assembly and vote for every Frenchman reinstated; declared France an empire
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National Workshops
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Established as a political concession to the "social" republicans, but no significant work was ever assigned them for fear of competition with private enterprise and dislocation of the economic system; the man placed in charge of them admitted that his purpose was to prove the fallacies of socialism; became in practice only an extensive project; excluded women; men from all trades set to work digging on the roads and fortifications outside Paris; paid two francs a day; number of unemployed rose too rapidly from depression of year before (1847)
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June Days
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The clash between the socialists wanting to preserve socialism and the National Workshops and the antisocial Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed martial law; class war that raged in Paris from June 24 to 26 in 1848; Assembly won
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Falloux Law
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1850; put the schools at all levels of the education system under supervision of the Catholic clergy
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March Laws
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Laws enacted in Hungary by the diet, aroused by Kossuth's national party, by which Hungary sought complete constitutional separatism within the empire, while still recognizing the Habsburg House
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Kossuth
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Hungarian statesman; leader of radical party in the Hungarian diet; made an impassioned speech on the virtues of liberty on March 3 which brought about a spirit of revolution and scared Metternich enough to resign and flee to England
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Jellachich
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Military leader of the Croats, who had enjoyed certain liberties before the Magyar revolution; provincial governor of Croatia; raised a civil war in Hungary, leading a force of Serbo-Croatians, supported by the whole non-Magyar half of the population; made military commander by Emperor Ferdinand against the Magyars
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Mazzini
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Led the short-lived Republic in Rome during the Italian upheavals of 1849, but his new regime was soon suppressed by foreign powers and he retreated to the life of an exile in England; Romantic nationalism; lost favor in Italy after about 1850, but his writings and political activities gave him a prominent place in the intellectual life of London; revolutionary violence in his Roman Republic; Roman Republic proclaimed under three Triumvirs, one of whom was Mazzini, who hastened from England (before) to take part in the republican upheaval
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counter-revolution
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a revolution against a government recently established by a revolution
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reactionaries
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of, pertaining to, marked by, or favoring reaction, esp. extreme conservatism or rightism in politics; opposing politicalor social change
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The Syllabus of Errors
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Codification of Pope Pius IX which warned all Catholics, on the authority of the Vatican, against everything that went under the names of liberalism, progress, and modern civilization
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The Bach System
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Regime of the Austrian Empire under Prince Schwarzenberg, the emperor's chief minister, and named after Alexander Bach, the minister of the interior; the government was rigidly centralized; avoided nationalism and constitutionalism; Hungary lost the separate rights it had held before 1848; ideal was to create a perfectly solid and unitary political system; Bach insisted on maintaining the emancipation of the peasants, which had converted the mass of the people from subjects of their landlords to subjects of the state; Bach drove through a reform of the legal system and law courts, created a free trading area of the whole empire with only a common external tariff, and subsidized and encouraged the building of highways and railroads; aim was to make people forget liberty in an overwhelming demonstration of administrative efficiency and material progress
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Frederick William IV
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King of Prussia and successor to Frederick William III; inherited the throne in 1840; much was first expected by liberals; was equally determined as predecessor to not share his authority with his subjects; at the same time the government, administratively speaking, was efficient, progressive and fair; when riots and street fighting broke out, he called off the soldiers and allowed his subjects to elect the first all-Prussian legislative assembly; army remained in tact and its Junker officers remained unconvinced, but revolution proceeded superficially; a hereditary headship of a new German empire, a constitutional and federal union of German states minus Austria, as offered to him; tempted, but turned it down to avoid fighting; territory would have to be offered freely by his equals, the sovereign princes of Germany
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Frankfurt Assembly
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A self-appointed committee convoked a preliminary parliament, which in turn arranged for the election of an all-German assembly; voters throughout bypassed the existing sovereignties sent delegates to Frankfurt to create a federated superstate; represented the moral sentiment of the people at large, the liberal and national aspirations of many Germans; stood for an idea but did not represent anything politically; delegates had no power to issue orders or expect compliance; met in May 1848; became dependent on the power to the very sovereign states that it was attempting to supersede; no preexisting national structure or all-German army or civil service to take over; not revolutionary; professionals; wanted a liberal, self-governing, federally unified, and "democratic" though not egalitarian Germany; succeed by persuasion; against violence; most troublesome question was national, not social; eager to create a real Germany but could not propose a German state that would be smaller than the shadow Germany that they so much deplored; Great Germans
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Zollverein
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Tariff union that was extended in the following decades after 1818 to include almost all Germany, enacted by the government in mercantilist traditions; initiated at first with tiny states (or enclaves) wholly enclosed within Prussia
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Great Germans
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Those who thought that the Germany for which they were writing a constitution should include the Austrian lands, except Hungary, which would mean that the federal crown must be offered to the Habsburgs; majority in Frankfurt Assembly
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Little Germans
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Those who thought that Austria should be excluded and that the new Germany should comprise the smaller states and the entire kingdom of Prussia, in which case the king of Prussia would become the federal emperor; minority in Frankfurt Assembly
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Declaration of the Rights of the German People
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Issued in December of 1848 by the Frankfurt Assembly; a humane and high-minded document, announcing numerous individual rights, civil liberties, and constitutional guarantees, much along the line of the French and American declarations of the 18th century, but with one significant difference--the French and Americans spoke of the rights of man, while even the liberal Germans spoke of the rights of Germans; completed in April 1849; now clear that Austria must be excluded, for the simple reason that the Habsburg government refused to come in; thus gave the opportunity for more power to Frederick William IV, who denied it, and so caused the Assembly to ultimately fail
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Zola
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A writer who does not appear in this section
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Auguste Comte
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French philosopher who originated Positivism; wrote "Positive Philosophy"; saw human history as a series of three stages, the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific; French revolutions suffered from an excess of metaphysical abstractions, empty words, and unverifiable high-flying principles; those who worked for the improvement of society must adopt a strictly scientific outlook, and Comte produced an elaborate classification of the sciences, of which the highest would be the science of society, for which he coined the word "sociology"; envisaged a final scientific Religion of Humanity, which, stripped of archaic theological and metaphysical concerns, would serve as the basis for a better world of the future
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Marx
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Disappointed revolutionary of 1848; son of a lawyer in the Prussian Rhineland; studied law and philosophy at several German universities and received a doctoral degree in 1841; unable to find an academic job, Marx associated with radical German intellectuals, began writing for left-wing journals, and soon moved to Paris with other Germans who wanted to produce philosophical publications in the historic birthplace of modern revolutions; began to collaborate with Engels; joined Communist League in 1847; co-writer of "Communist Manifesto"; settled in England, spending the rest of his life in London, where, after long labors in the library of the British Museum, he finally produced his huge work called "Capital"; developed the idea of the alienation of labor; claimed depression of 1847 had precipitated the revolutions of 1848; with every such depression during the rest of his life hoped that the day of the great social revolution was drawing nearer; emphasized the primacy of material conditions, or the relations of production, which included technology, inventions, natural resources, and property systems, which gave rise to economic classes
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Engels
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Disappointed revolutionary of 1848; son of a well-to-do German textile manufacturer; sent as a young man to Manchester in England where his father owned a factory, to learn the business and then manage it; collaborated with Marx; joined Communist League; co-writer of "Communist Manifesto"; later returned from travels to his factory at Manchester; engaged in the Manchester cotton industry, possessed a personal knowledge of the new industrial and factory system in England; was in touch with some of the most radical Chartists, though he had no confidence in Chartism as a constructive movement; published a revealing book "The Condition of the Working Classes in England"; drew from his observations much the same conclusions that Marx drew from philosophical analysis and historical study; with Marx, interpreted the June Days class war as a manifestation of a universal class struggle, in which the workers or proletariat would rise against the owners of capital, the bourgeoisie
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Realism
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The new intellectual themes that appeared in the literature and the arts, holding that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was an outgrowth of physical or physiological forces; writers and painters broke away form romanticism, which they said colored things out of all relation to the real facts; attempted to describe and reproduce life as they found it, without intimation of a better or nobler world; mocked the illusions of romantic literature and showed the new artistic desire for a precise, unsentimental literary language
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Materialism
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In basic philosophy the new intellectual themes appeared as this, holding that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was an outgrowth of physical or physiological forces; called realism in arts and literature
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Positivism
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Related to sociology, it came to mean an insistence on verifiable facts, an avoidance of wishful thinking, a questioning of all assumptions, and a dislike of unprovable generalizations; in a broad sense, both in its demand for observation of facts and testing ideas, and in its aspiration to be humanly useful, contributed to the growth of the social sciences as a branch of learning; coined by Comte
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Sociology
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Science of society classified by Comte; this new science would build upon observation of actual "positive" facts to develop broad scientific laws of social progress; related to positivism
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Realpolitik
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German term for the new new emphasis on realism in politics; "politics of reality"; in domestic affairs it meant that people should give up utopian dreams, such as had caused the debacle of 1848, and content themselves with the blessings of an orderly, honest, hard-working government; for radicals it meant that people should stop imagining that the new society would result from goodness or the love of justice and that the social reformers must resort to the methods of politics--power and calculation; in internal affairs meant that governments should not be guided by ideology, or by any system of "natural" enemies or "natural" allies, or by any desire to defend or promote any particular view of the worlds, but that they should follow their own practical or strategic interests, meet facts and situations as they arose, make any alliances that seemed useful, disregard ethical theories and scruples, and use any practical means to achieve their ends; war was a strategic option, though not an end; by no means confined to Germany
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Marxism
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Originated from German philosophy, French revolutionism, and the British Industrial Revolution; alienation of labor; Marx seen as a more social analyst and critical historian than a revolutionary; claimed to be scientific; had nothing to do with ethical ideas; the system of economic and political thought developed by Karl Marx, along with Friedrich Engels, esp. the doctrine that the state throughout history has been a device for the exploitation of the masses by a dominant class, that class struggle hasbeen the main agency of historical change, and that the capitalist system, containing from the first the seeds of its own decay, will inevitably, after the period of the dictatorship of the proletariat, be superseded by a socialist order and a classless society
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Dialectical materialism
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All things are in movement and evolution and that all change comes through the clash of antagonistic elements: dialectical, which originally meant a way of arriving at a higher conclusion through a series of propositions, as in a logical argument; the implications were that all history, and indeed all reality, is a process of development through time, a single and meaningful unfolding of events in a clear historical direction; that every event happens for good and sufficient reasons, and that history, though not exactly predetermined, is always shaped by impersonal and deep structural changes rather than by individuals or chance events; doctrine of Marx, expanding on Hegel
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Alienation of workers
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A social experience and state of mind produced when human beings in the historic process of mechanization become estranged from the objects on which they work; was a distinctive feature of modern capitalist societies; the economic system of wage labor and private ownership of the means of production kept workers from identifying with or benefiting from the products of their labor; the wealth (or capital) that workers produced was regularly used against them in the social and political institutions of capitalist societies; true freedom would become possible only when private property in capital goods was abolished; put forth by Marx
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Proletarian
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Working class
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Baron Haussmann
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One of the most creative city planners in France, gave Paris much of the appearance that it has today; built roomy railway stations with broad approaches, and he constructed a system of boulevards and public squares offering long vistas ending in fine buildings or monuments, as at the Place de l'Opera; modernized the sewers and the water supply; building program had the additional advantage of simulating business and employment
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Authoritarianism
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Napoleon III affirmed that he stood above classes and would govern equally in the interests of all; he held that forms of government were less important than economic and social realities; political institutions were modeled on those of the Consulate of the first Bonaparte; there was a Council of State, composed of experts who drafted legislation and advised on technical matters; there was also an appointive Senate and a Legislative Body, which was elected by universal male suffrage in carefully managed elections; the Legislative Body had no real power to make laws, set the budget, or control the army; parliamentary life was reduced almost to absolute zero;of or pertaining to a governmental or political system, principle, or practice in which individual freedom is held as completely subordinate to the power or authority of the state, centered either in one person or a small group that is not constitutionally accountable to the people
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Investment banking
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developed by the Saint-Simonians; hoped to guide economic growth through the concentration of financial resources; "Credit Mobilier"; " bank: a financial institution that deals chiefly in the underwriting of new securities
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"Credit Mobilier"
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A novel kind of banking institution founded by the Saint-Simonians in the 1850s which raised funds by selling its shares to the public, and with the funds thus obtained bought stock in such new industrial enterprises as it wished to develop
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"limited liability"
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Right granted by the law in 1863 by which a stockholder could not lose more than par value of the stock, however insolvent or debt-burdened the corporation might become; encouraged investment by many people in enterprises which they knew very little; wealth and savings of the country were more effectively mobilized and put to work; stocks and shares became more numerous and diversified; Stock Exchange boomed; Financiers assumed a new eminence in the capitalistic world; many people became rich
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