Chapter 12-15 Review

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Evolution

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Descent with modification, change in allele frequenies in a population over time

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Microevolution

Back 2

relatively short-term changes in allele frequencies wthin a population or species

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macroevolution

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Large scale evolutionary changes

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adaptation

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Inerited trait that permits an organism to survive and reproduce

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heritable trait

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traits that are passed down to assist in adaptation

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nautral selection

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differential reproduction of organisms based on inherited traits

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selectively neutral

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traits that are passed down that neither decrease nor increase reproductive success.

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Evolutionary Fitness

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an organisms contribution to the next generations gene pool

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gene Pool

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all the genes and their alleles in a population

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Allele

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one or two or more alternative forms of a gene

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Hardy-Weinberg Equilibruim

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situation in which alele frequenccies do not change from one generation to the next. Assumes Natural Selection and mutations don't occur, the population is infinetly large, mates at random and individuals do not migrate

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genetic drift

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change in alele frequencies that occurs purely by chancce

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directional selection

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form of nautral selectoni in which one extreme phenotype is fittest and the environment selects against the others.

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disruptive selection

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form of natural selection in which two extreme phenotypes are fittest

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stabilizing selection

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form of nautral selection in which extreme phenotypes are less fit than the optimal intermediate phenotype

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balanced polymorphism

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condition in which multiple alleles persist indefinetly in a population.

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heterozygote advantage

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condition in which a heterozygote has a greater fitness than a homozygotes maintaing balanced polymorphism in a population.\

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sexual selection

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type of natural selection resulting from variation in the ability to obtain mates

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intrasexual selection

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competition between members of the same sex for access to the opposiite sex

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intersexual selection

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choice of mates by one sex from among competiing members of the opposite sex

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mutation

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a change in DNA sequence

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founder effect

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Caused by genetic drift when a proportion of a population leaves and establishes an isolated settlement. Because the allele sample is smaller some rare traits are more prominant

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bottleneck effect

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Caused by genetic drift when a sudden reduction in the size of a population reduces the variety of alleles. Even if the species can restore population the loss of genetic diversity is permanenet.

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gene flow

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the movement of alleles between populations

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George Louis Buffon

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1707-1788 First to suggest that losely related species arose from a common ancestor and were changing

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James Hutton

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1726- 1797 uniformitarianism erosion and sedimentation have also occured in the past changing earth over time

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George Cuvier

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1769-1832 catastrophism brief, violent, global upheavals are responsible for most geological formations. Supersition - Older rocks are at the bottom

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Jean Babtiste de Lamarck

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1744-1829 Origin of natural selection - A species that uses a body part would make that body part strong. A species that did not use that body part, that body part would go weak

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Paleontology

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The study of fossil remains or other clues to past life

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biogeopgraphy

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the study of the distribution of patterns of species across the planet

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geologic timescale

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a division of Earth's history into eons eras, periods, and epochs defined by major geological or biological events

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fossil

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any evidence of an organism from more then 10,000 years ago

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relative dating

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placing a fossil into a sequence of events without assigning it a specific range

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absolute dating

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determinin the age of a fossil in years

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radiometric dating

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a type of absolute dating that uses known rates of radioactive decay to date fossils

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plate tectonics

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theory that Eart's surface consists of severa pates that mve in response to forces acting deep within the planet

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homologous structures

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traits that are similar due to common ancestry

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vestigal structures

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having no apparent function in one organism but homologous to a functional structure in another species

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analogous structures

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similar in function but not in structure because of convergent evolution, not common ancestry

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convergent evolution

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the evoltuion of similar adaptations in organisms that do not share the same evolutionary lineage

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homeotic

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describes any gene that when mutated leads to organisms with structures in the wrong places

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molecular clock

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application of the rate at which DNA mutates to estimate when two types of organisms diverged from a shared ancestor

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Carolus Linnaeus

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Concept: All examples of creatures that were alike in minute detai of body structure is a species. Identified the two-word names (Homo-Sapien) Estabished hierarchical system for classifying animals

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Ernst Mayr

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Defined a species as: A population, or group of populations, whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offpsring

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Species

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a distinct type of organism

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Genus

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taxonomic category that groups closely related species

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Prezygotic reproductive barrier

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seperation of species due to factrs that prevent to formation of a zygote

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Postzygotic reproductive barrier

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seperation of species due to selection against hybrid offspring

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hybrid

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producing a mix of offspring fo one or more traits; heterozygous

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ecological isolation

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(habitat isolation) a difference in habitat preference that separates two populations in the same geographic area (Lady bugs feeding on different plants) -Prezyotic

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temporal isolation

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Species that share a population but do not mate because they are active at different times of day (Crickets mature at different rates) - Prezygoti

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behavioral isolation

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Behaviors in mating practices prevent two closely related species from mating (Frogs have specific mating calls to attract their own species) - prezygotic

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mechanical isolation

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Specfic genitailia are different making breeding impossible. -prezygotic

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gametic isolation

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Sperm cannot fertilize an egg cell. - prezygotic

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infertility

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A hybrid that can not reproduce. (Mule cannot reproduce with other mules, donkeys, or horses) - Postzygotic

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inviability

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a hybrid embryo may die before reaching reproductive maturity because the parent's genes are incompatible -Postzzygotic

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breakdown

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some species poduce hybrid offspring that are fertile but when the hybrids reproduce their offspring have abnormalities that reduce their fitness - postzygotic

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allopatric speciation

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formation of new species after a physical barrier eparates a population into groups that cannot interbreed

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sympatrc speciation

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formation of new species within the boundaries of a parent species

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parapatric speciation

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formation of new species when part of a population enters a habitat borderin the parent species range and the tw groups become reproductively isolated

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gradualism

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theory that proposes that evolutionary change ccurs gradually in a series of small steps

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punctuated speciation

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describes relatively brief bursts of rapid evoution interrupting long periods of little change

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transitional form

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intermediate species that have not been discovered between the discovered extinct species. Due to rapid evolution not leaving much fossil evidence.

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adaptive radiation

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divergence of multiple new species from a sinle ancestral type in a relatively short time.

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extinction

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dissapearance of a species

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systematics

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field of study that inludes taxonomy and phylogenetis

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taxonomy

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the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms

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phylogenetics

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field of study tjat attempts to explain the evolutionary relationships among species

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taxon

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a group at any rank.

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taxonomic hierarchy

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Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

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phylogenies

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graphical depiction of evolutionary relationships among species

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cladstics

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phylogenetic system that defines groups by distinguishing between ancestral and derived characters

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ancestral character

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characteristics alread present in the ancestor of the group being studied

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derived character

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characteristic not found in the ancestor of a group being studied

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Clade

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monophyletic group of organisms consisting of a common ancestor and all of it's descendants

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monophyletic

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describes a group of organisms consisting of a common ancestor and a of it's descendants

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cladogram

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treelike diagram built using shared dervied characteristics

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paraphylectic

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describes a group of organisms that contains a common anestor and some but not all of it's descndants

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Miller and Urey

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First test of Oparin and Haldane's theory that the atmosphere was made of nitrogen, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, water, and htdrogen. Test created simple sugars under the right conditions

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Geologic timesale

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a division of earth's history into eons, eras. periods, and epochs defined y major geological or biological events Order: Supereon, eon, era, period, epoch

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prebiiotic simulation

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experiment that attempts to recreate the conditions on eary Earth that gave rise to the first cell

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hydrothermal vent

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openings in the earth's crust underneath water. Combines heat from the center of the earth with a cold water environment.

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RNA World

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the idea that the first independently replicating life form was RNA

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Progenotes

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collection of nucleic acid, protein, and lipds that was the frerunner to cells

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primordial

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before life

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Hadean eon

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Time of volanic eruptions, earthquakes, UV radiation, and impacts from space. Crust formed 4.1 billion years ago prokaryotic life forms at the end

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Archean eon

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Prokaryotic life forms at the beginning. Origin of photosynthesis

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Proterozoic eon

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Oxygen starts to accumulate in the atmosphere

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Paleozoic era

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Plants and animals start to emerge on land from the ocean

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mesozoic era

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Reptles and flowering plants emerge and dominante the landscape

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Cenozoic era

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Mammals rise and dominate the landscape after mass extinction event

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endosymbiosis

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idea that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living bacteria engulfed bh other prokaryotic cells

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primates

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mammal with opposable thumbs eyes in the front of the skull a relatively large brain and flat nails instead of claws; includes prosimians simians, and hominoids

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hominoids

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any lesser or great ape inluding humans

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hominid

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any of the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans

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hominines

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gorilla chimpanzee of human

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hominins

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extinct or modern human

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Homo Sapiens

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hooomanns

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culture

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the knowledge beliefs and behaviors that humans transmit from generation to generation