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92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Kay
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Inventor of the fly shuttle
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Fly shuttle
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Invention by which only one person instead of two was needed to weave cloth on a loom; first operated by hand
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Arkwright
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Patented the water frame and the steam engine
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Water frame
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A device for the multiple spinning of many threads initially run by steam power and later run by the steam engine
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Spinning jenny
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Invented in 1760s; kind of mechanized spinning wheel that enable workers to increase their production of yarn; first operated by hand
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Whitney
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Inventor of the cotton gin; from Connecticut
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Cotton gin
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Sped up the removal of seeds, therefore greatly increasing the output of cotton; spread through the American South, where the decaying plantation economy was abruptly revived, becoming an adjunct to the Industrial Revolution in England; British imports of raw cotton multiplied fivefold in the 30 years following 1790; cotton cloth became the most important British industry and made up almost half of all British exports by 1820
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Newcomen
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Built the first economically significant steam engine, which was soon widely used to drive pumps in the coal mines, but consumed so much fuel in proportion to power delivered that it could generally be used on ly int he coal fields
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Watt
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Technician at the University of Glasgow who made improvements on Newcomen's engine; formed a business partnership with Matthew Boulton; togetherr their firm was eminently successful, manufacturing steam engines both for British use and for the export trade
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Stephenson
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Built the first fully satisfactory locomotive in 1829; by the 1840s the era of railroad construction was under way in both Europe and the United States
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Rocket
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The first fully satisfactory locomotive, which in 1829, on the newly built Liverpool and Manchester Railway, not only reached an impressive speed of 16 miles per hour but met more important safety tests as well
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Fulton
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Employed the work of the Boulton and Watt steam engine to successfully propel boats; Hudson River 1807
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Squirearchy
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"Gentlemen of England:; From 1688 to 1832, the British government was substantially in the hands of these landowners, leading to the transformation of farming, the Agricultural Revolution, which led to the Industrial Revolution
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Enclosure
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The landowners who controlled Parliament passed hundreds of these acts, authorizing the enclosure, by fences, walls, or hedges, of the old common lands and unfenced open fields, causing land to come under a strict regime of private ownership and individual management who leased it out in large blocks to a relatively small class of substantial farmers; small owners were sold out or were excluded in various ways; greatly raised the productivity of land and of farm labor
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Power loom
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Invention that caused spinning and weaving to take place increasingly in factories; developed because of the mechanical spinning that was now for a time overwhelming the hand weavers with yarn; economically practicable after 1800
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Classical economists
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Laissez-faire; doctrine of Thomas R. Malthus and David Ricardo following Smith that held that there is a world of economic relationships autonomous and separable from government or politics; it is the world of the free market and is regulated within itself by certain "natural laws," such as the law of supply and demand; all persons should follow their own enlightened self-interest; government should do as little as possible; no tariffs; "iron law of wages"
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Manchester School
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A school of economists in England in the first half of the 19th century, devoted to free trade and the repeal of the Corn Law, led by Richard Cobden and John Bright; political economy as taught here was not without reason called the "dismal science"
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"Iron law of wages"
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According to classical economists before about 1850, workers should not expect to make more than than a bare minimum living; this law shows that as soon as workers receive more than a subsistence wage they breed more children, who eat up the excess, so that they reduce themselves, and the working class generally, again to a subsistence level; workers, if discontented, should see the folly of changing the system, for this is the system, the natural system, there is no other
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Byron
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Great English exponent of romanticism
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Shelley
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Percy Bysshe and Mary Wollstonecraft; great English exponents of romanticism
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Wordsworth
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Great English exponent of romanticism
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Hugo
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Great French exponent of romanticism
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Chateaubriand
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Great French exponent of romanticism
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Sand
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Great French exponent of romanticism
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Schiller
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Great German exponent of romanticism
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Schlegel
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Great German exponent of romanticism
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Robert Owen
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One of the first socialists and one of the first cotton lords; appalled at the condition of the millhands; created a kind of model community for his own employees, paying high wages, reducing hours, sternly correcting vice and drunkenness, building schools and housing company stores for the cheap sale of workers' necessities; from such paternalistic capitalism in his early years he passed on to a long lifetime spent in crusading for social reforms, in which he was somewhat handicapped, not only by the opposition of industrialist, but also by his unpopular radicalism in matters of religion; socialist leader; also had arguments similar to the idea that traced the inferior status of women to flaws in the economic system; New Harmony, Indiana later
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Saint-Simon
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Nobleman who had fought in the War of American Independence, accepted the French Revolution, and in his later years wrote many books on social problems; he and his followers, who called themselves not socialists but Saint-Simonians, were among the first clear exponents of a planned society; they advocated the public ownership of industrial equipment and other capital, with control vested in the hands of great captains of industry or social engineers, who should plan vast projects like the digging of a canal at Suez, and in general coordinate the labor and resources of society to productive ends
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Fourier
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A somewhat doctrinaire thinker who subjected all social institutions to a sweeping condemnation; his positive program took the form of proposing that society be organized in small units which he termed "phalansteries," each of these he conceived to contain 1,620 persons, each doing the work suited to his or her natural inclination
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Blanc
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Paris journalist who was the spokesman for the republicans (mixture or revolutionary republicanism and socialism) who developed a deep hostility to the owning classes of the bourgeoisie; editor of the "Revue de progres" and author of "Organization of Work," one of the most constructive of the early socialist writings; proposed a system of "social workshops," or state-supported manufacturing centers, in which the workers should labor by and for themselves without the intervention of private capitalists
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Mazzini
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Italian and best known of the nationalist philosophers in western Europe; spent most of his adult life in exile in France and England; in his youth he joined the Carbonari, but in 1831 he founded a society of his own, called Young Italy, and he edited and smuggled into Italy copies of a journal of the same name; tried unsuccessfully in 1834 to bring about and uprising against the kingdom of Sardinia, which he viewed as a key obstacle to the unification of Italy; undeterred by the total failure of this plan, he continued to organize, to conspire, and to write; nationality and revolution were a holy cause in which the most generous and humane qualities were to find expression; was a moral philosopher; ""The Duties of Man": placed duty to the nation intermediate between duty to family and to God
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The Brothers Grimm
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Grimm's Fairy Tales, published in 1812; work of the two Grimm brothers, founders of the modern science of comparative linguistics, who traveled about Germany to study the popular dialects and in doing so collected the folktales that for generations had been current among the common people; hoped in this way to find the native, ancient, indigenous "spirit" of Germany, deep and unspoiled in the bosom of the Volk; part of obsession with German nationality
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Hegel
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The most extraordinary of all nineteenth-century thinkers; witnessing the spectacle of the Napoleonic years, it was evident that for a people to enjoy freedom, order, or dignity it must possess a potent and independent state, which became the institutional embodiment of reason and liberty for him; conceived reality itself as a process of endless change, a development having an inner logic and necessary sequence of its own; became philosopher of history in which he saw the unfolding of a "Universal Spirit" or "Idea" across time, linking it to reason and freedom: Hegelian dialect
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List
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"National System of Political Economy"; held that political economy as taught in England was suited only to England; it was not an abstract truth but a body of ideas developed in a certain historical stage in a certain country; became a founder of the historical or institutional school of economics; doctrine of freed trade was designed to make England the world's industrial center by keeping other countries in the status of suppliers of raw material and food; but any country, if it was to be civilized and develop its own national culture, must have cities, factories, industries, and capital of its own; it must therefore put up high tariffs for protection; had developed his ideas during a sojourn in the United States, influenced by Clay's American System
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Von Ranke
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Most eminent of the German historians; founder of the "scientific" school of historical writing; intellectually scrupulous to the last degree, though he owed much of his incentive to his national feeling; first youthful work was a study of the "Latin and Teutonic Peoples"; one of his main ideas, throughout his long life, was that Europe owed its unique greatness to the coexistence and interplay of several distinct nations, which had always resisted the attempts of any one nation to control the whole; the Germans had a mission from God to develop a culture and a political system entirely different from those of the French, destined to "create the pure German state corresponding to the genius of the nation"; whether Western constitutional, parliamentary, and individualist principles were suited to the national character of Germany seemed to him very doubtful
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Vuk Karajich
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Serb who in 1814 published a grammar of his native tongue and a collection of "Poplar Songs and Epics of the Serbs"; worked out a Serbian alphabet, translated the New Testament, and declared that the dialect spoken in the city of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik) should become the literary language of all South Slavs
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Palacky
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Czech historian who in 1836 published the first volume of his "History of Bohemia", designed to give the Czechs a new pride in their national past; first wrote his book in German, the common reading language of educated Czechs; soon recast book into Czech, significantly reentitling it a "History of the Czech People"
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Mickiewicz
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Pole poet and revolutionary; arrested by Russians in 1823 for membership in a secret society, he was later allowed by the tsarist government to pass into western Europe; from 1840 to 1844 he taught Slavic literature at the College de France, using his lecture platform as a rostrum to deliver eloquent pleas for the liberation of all peoples and overthrow of autocracy; wrote epic poems on Polish historical themes and continued to be active among the revolutionary Polish exiles settled in France
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Jeremy Bentham
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Elderly sage who in prolific writings from 1776 to 1832 undertook to reform the English criminal and civil law, church, Parliament, and constitution; Leader of the Philosophical Radicals who were a good deal like the rationalist French philosophes before the Revolution
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Radicalism
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Radicals went to the roots of things; wanted a total reconstruction of laws, courts, prisons, poor relief, municipal organization, rotten boroughs, and fox-hunting clergy; detested Church of England, peerage, and squirearchy; just as soon abolish royalty; democratic--demanded a vote for every adult Englishman; represented by militant republicanism on the Continent
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Liberalism
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Persons of the business and professional classes, together with enterprising landowners wishing to improve their estates; believed in what was modern, enlightened, efficient, reasonable, and fair; had confidence in the human capacity for self-government and self-control; set a high value on parliamentary or representative government, working through reasonable legislation and discussion, with responsible ministries and an impartial and law-abiding administration; demanded full publicity for all actions of government, and to ensure such publicity they insisted on freedom of the press and free rights of assembly; most likely to be realized under a good constitutional monarchy; NOT democrats, generally opposing giving every man the vote, fearing the excesses of mob rule or of irrational political action; internationally advocated freedom of trade, to be accomplished by the lowering or abolition of tariffs, so that all countries might exchange their products easily with each other and with industrial England; progress of humanity
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Socialism
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Developed from republicanism; generally shared; the political attitudes of republicanism but added other views besides; regarded the existing economic system as aimless, chaotic, and outrageously unjust; thought it improper for owners of wealth to have so much economic power;questioned the value of private enterprise, favoring some degree of communal ownership of productive assets; disliked competition as a governing economic or social principle and set forth principles of harmony, cooperation or association instead; flatly and absolutely rejected laissez-faire of the liberals and the political economists; fairer and more equal distribution of income among all useful members of society; believed that beyond the civil and legal equality brought by the French Revolution a further step toward social and economic equality had yet to be taken; communal societies; "utopias"
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Republicanism
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Drawn from intelligentsia such as students and writers, from working-class leaders protesting social injustice, and from elderly veterans, or the descendants of veterans, to whom the Republic of '93, with its wars and its glory, was a living thing; joined together in secret societies; looked with equanimity on the prospect of further revolutionary upheaval, by which they felt that the cause of liberty, equality, and fraternity would be advanced; believers in political equality, democrats demanding universal male suffrage; favored parliamentary government but were much less primarily concerned with its successful operation than were the liberals; bitterly anticlerical; opposed to monarchy
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Romanticism
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Primarily a theory of literature and the arts; raised basic questions on the nature of significant truth, on the importance of various human faculties, on the relation of thought and feeling, on the meaning of the past and of time itself; rejected emphasis on classical rules and rational order that had shaped aesthetic theory during much of the eighteenth century; celebrated the idiosyncratic visions of creative individuals rather than the symmetries of classical art and literature; helped produce the modern image of defiant artistic rebels; new way of sensing all human experience; expressions of inner genius; love of the unclassifiable--moods or impressions, scenes or stories, sights or sunds, etc. etc.
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Feminism
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Sought to expand the rights of women in both public and private life
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Volksgeist
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National spirit that emphasized national differences; Herder
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Social workshops
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State-supported manufacturing centers proposed by Blanc in which the workers should labor by and for themselves without the intervention of private capitalists
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Nationalism
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West: not a doctrine for nation-building so much as a set of political and cultural beliefs, easily aroused when national interests were questioned but taken for granted; Elsewhere: where peoples of the same nationality were politically divided or subject to foreign rule, became a deliberate and conscious program for political action; pride in one's nation; self-rule
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Carbonari
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Secret nationalist society in Italy organized around the time of Napoleon
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Hegelian dialectic
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Change came about through a historical, irresistible tendency of the Universal Spirit and the human mind to move forward by the creation of opposites; a given state of affairs (thesis) would in this view inevitably produce the conception of an opposite state of affairs (antithesis), which would be followed by a reconciliation and fusion of the two (synthesis), which became the starting point for a new thesis in the next stage of dialectical change; very disunity of Germany, by producing the opposing idea of unity, would lead to a more unified state
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Scientific history
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Founded by Leopold von Ranke; part of the the stimulation of historical studies and German universities becoming centers of historical learning as part of a response to the Hegelian dialectic; scrupulous study of history; Europe owed its unique greatness to the coexistence and interplay of several distinct nations, which had always resisted the attempts of any one nation to control the whole; Germans had a mission from God to develop a culture and political system entirely different from those of the French; destined to "create the pure German state corresponding to the genius of the nation:; whether Western constitutional, parliamentary, and individualist principles were suited to the national character of Germany to Ranke seemed very doubtful
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Slavophilism
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National feelings that spread through the different groups of Slavs: Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, and Ruthenians, Czechs, Slovaks, South Slavs, consisting fo the Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and Bulgars; Russian Slavophilism was the idea that Russia possessed a way of life of its own, different from and not to be corrupted by Europe, which became a Russian affirmation of the fundamental idea of the Volksgeist
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Pan-Slavism
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Assertions of the Slavic peoples as a whole that were crystallized systematically from the views of Slavophilism, Russian Slavophilism, and the Volksgeist
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Humanitarianism
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Heightened concern about the cruelty inflicted upon others; torture was gone, and even conservative monarchical governments showed no inclination to restore it; conditions in prisons, hospitals, insane asylums, and orphanages improved; people became determined to change the miserable social position of pauper children, chimney sweeps, women in the mines, and enslaved people in the Americas; Russian serf owners and American slave owners began to show psychological signs of moral doubt; to degrade human beings, use them as work animals, torture them, confine them unjustly, hold them as hostages for others, tear apart their families, and punish their relatives were increasingly regarded by Europeans as foreign to true civilization; the Christian sense of the inviolability of the human person was now again, in a more secular, mundane way, beginning to relieve the sufferings of humanity; reflected the Enlightenment
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Louis XVIII
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Restored Bourbon king in France who aspired to keep his throne for himself and his successors; began his reign in 1814 with an amnesty to the regicides of 1793; could not control the rallying of the regicides and the disputes between them and the royalist counterrevolutionaries, which he was sensible enough to realize would only infuriate the revolutionary element still further; died in 1824
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Charles X
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Successor to and brother of Louis XVIII; the father of the recently murdered Duke de Berry; for over 30 years had also been the acknowledged leader of implacable counterrevolution; had been among first to emigrate in 1789 as Count of Artois; favorite Bourbon among the most obstinate exseigneurs, nobles, and churchmen; regarded himself as hereditary absolute monarch by the grace of God; crowned at Reims and stamped out revolutionary republicanism, liberalism, and constitutionalism
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Metternich
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Dominant political figure for 33 years in Germany, Austria, Italy, and central Europe; chief aim was to maintain a system in which the prestige of the Habsburg dynasty should be supreme; saw manifestations of Germany national spirit or a more united Germany as a threat to the favorable position of the Austrian Empire and to the whole balance of Europe; called a conference of the principal German states at Carlsbad in Bohemia; Carlsbad Decrees
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Mickiewicz
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Polish poet and revolutionary; arrested by the Russians in 1823 for membership in a secret society; later allowed by tsarist government to pass into western Europe; from 1840 to 1844 he taught Slavic literature at the College de France, using his lecture platform as a rostrum to deliver eloquent pleas for the liberation of all peoples and overthrow of autocracy; wrote epic poems on Polish historical themes and continued to be active among the revolutionary Polish exiles settled in France
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Burschenschaft
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The collective name for college clubs formed by students in many universities in 1815 which, as centers of serious political discussion, were to replace the older clubs devoted to drinking and dueling; German youth movement that held a nationwide congress at Wartburg in 1817; students listened to rousing speeches by patriotic professors, marched about in "Teutonic" costume, and burned a few reactionary books; this undergraduate performance was no immediate threat to any established state, but the nervous governments took alarm
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Carlsbad Decrees
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Resolutions proposed by Metternich at a conference at Carlsbad in Bohemia; frightened conferees adopted these, which were soon enacted by the diet of the Bund in 1819; dissolved the Burschenschaft and the equally nationalistic gymnastic clubs; provided for government officials to be placed in the universities and for censors to control the contents of books and the periodical and newspaper press; remained in force for many years; imposed an effective check on the growth of liberal and nationalist ideas in Germany
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Corn Law
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Enacted by the landowning gentry who controlled Parliament; raised the protective tariff to the point where import of grain became impossible unless prices were very high; tariffs on the import of grain
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Peterloo Massacre
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Demonstration by 80000 people at Manchester at St. Peter's Fields in 1819; demanded male suffrage, annual election of the House of Commons, and the repeal of the Corn Laws; although perfectly orderly they were fired upon be soldiers; 11 people were killed and about 400 wounded, including 113 women; called this name by radicals in derisive comparison with the battle of Waterloo; demonstration held in protest to representation in Parliament and high grain prices
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Cato Street Gang
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A group of revolutionaries who plotted to assassinate the whole cabinet at a dinner; caught in Cato Street in London in 1820; five were hanged; Cato Street Conspiracy; in response to government's Six Acts
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Six Acts
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Put into effect after the Peterloo Massacre, these acts enacted by Parliament outlawed "seditious and blasphemous" literature, put a heavy stamp on newspapers, authorized the search of private houses for arms, and rigidly restricted the right of public meetings
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Ypsilanti
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A Greek who had spent his adult life in the military service of Russia and who in 1821 led a band of armed followers from Russia into Romania (then still a part of Turkey), hoping that all Greeks and pro-Greeks in the Turkish empire would join him; expected Russian support, since Russia had long wanted to use Greek Christians in a campaign to weaken the Turkish empire; shifted from liberal to reactionary views
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Bolivar
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Leader for independence in Latin America who had spent years in Europe and preferred the new constitutional principles but was in the end frustrated in his aspirations for his own country; became the liberator of Venezuela and Colombia
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San Martin
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Leader for independence in Latin America who had spent years in Europe and preferred the new constitutional principles but was in the end frustrated in his aspirations for his own country; became the liberator of Argentina and Chile, who both combined in the liberation of Peru
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Nicholas I
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Successor to Alexander I; maintained an unconditional and despotic autocracy
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Holy Alliance
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The collaboration of the European states in the congresses, subscribed to by the Great Powers who were alarmed after the return of Napoleon; set up by Alexander I; on the face of it was a statement of Christian purpose and international concord; gradually became an alliance for the suppression of revolutionary and even liberal activity, following in that respect the trend of the governments which made it up
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Troppau
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Document drawn up at this conference by Metternich for consideration and acceptance by the five Great Powers which held that all recognized European states should be protected by collective international action, in the interests of general peace and stability, from internal changes brought about by force; statement of collective security against revolution; France and Britain denied it, but Austria, Prussia, and Russia did
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Congress of Verona
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Congress called up by Metternich in response to Ypsilanti's Grecophile revolution; the possibility of a Turkish empire converted into a "Greek" empire and dependent on Russia was naturally unpleasant to Metternich; here French government proposed in the question of the revolution in Spain that it be authorized to dispatch any army across the Pyrenees; Congress welcomed the offer--Ferdinand VII took the throne of Spain, "freeing" the country from rule of the Masons, Carbonari, and heretics
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Monroe Doctrine
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Statement by President James Monroe in 1823 that stated that attempts by European powers to return parts of America to colonial status would be viewed as an unfriendly act by the U.S.; counterblast to the Metternich doctrine of the protocol of Troppau; depended on the tacit cooperation of the British fleet; announced that revolutions in America, if they resulted in regimes recognized by the U.S., were outside the pale of attention of European powers
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Congress System
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Attempt at a formal international regulation of European affairs; failed to make progress toward an international order because, especially after Alexander's conversion to Metternich's conservatism, they came to stand for nothing except preservation of the status quo; made no attempt at accommodation with the new forces that were shaping Europe; not the policy to forestall revolution by demanding that governments institute reforms--simply repressed or punished all revolutionary agitation; never succeeded in subordinating the interests of the Great Powers; ended after the Congress of Verona; collapse of this system opened the way to the uncontrolled nationalism of the sovereign states
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Decembrist revolt
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1825; Death of Alexander I was the signal for revolution in Russia; in military ecret societies were formed, some wanted constitutional tsardom, others a republic, others the freedom of serfs; uncertain if Alexander's brother Constantine or Nicholas would be successor; restless coteries in the army preferred Constatnine, who was thought to be more favorable to innovations in the state; in December proclaimed Constantine in St. Petersburg, but Constantine had already renounced his claims in favor of Nicholas, and the uprising was put down; five were hanged and others were condemned to forced labor or interned in Siberia; the first manifestation of the modern revolutionary movement in Russia inspired by an ideological program; immediate effect was to clamp repression upon Russia more firmly
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Louis Philippe
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The Duke of Orleans who became known as this title a; collateral relative of the Bourbons; had served as a young man in the republican army of 1792; the Chamber of Deputies on August 7 offered him the throne on the condition that he observe faithfully the constitutional charter of 1814; reigned until 1848; owed his throne to an insurrection, to a bargain made with republicans, and to promises made to the Chamber of Deputies; called himself king of the French, flew the flag of the Revolution, cultivated a popular manner, wore sober dark clothing, and carried an umbrella; though in private he worked stubbornly to maintain his royal position, in public he adhered scrupulously to the constitution
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George Canning
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British foreign minister; had proposed a joint statement by Great Britain and the United States against the East European powers on the Spanish-American question; more concerned with the Congress of Verona than threatening the U.S. with naval power accepted the line the U.S. took in the Monroe Doctrine; part of the group of Tory leaders who came forward in the 1820s
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Robert Peel
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Son of one of the first cotton manufacturers that was a part of the group of new Tory leaders that came forward in the 1820s
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July Ordinances
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When a leftist group was coming to power in France and voted "no confidence in the government," Charles X dissolved them and called new elections, who repudiated his policies; replied with these ordinances issued on his own authority; dissolved the newly elected Chamber before it had ever met, imposed censorship on the press, amended the suffrage as to reduce the voting power of bankers, merchants, and industrialists and to concentrate it in the hands of the old-fashioned aristocracy, and called for an election on the new basis
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July Monarchy
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Name given to the regime of Louis Philippe
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Belgian neutrality
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With the election of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, a German princeling who had married into the British royal family and became a British subject, the British negotiated with Talleyrand, sent over by the French government b/c the Belgians had thought about putting Louis Philippe's son on the throne, and the result was the treaty of 1831; Belgium was set up as a perpetually neutral state, incapable of forming alliances and guaranteed against invasion by all five of the Great Powers; the aim was to prevent the annexation of Belgium to France by the Congress of Vienna was realized in a new way; internally became a stable parliamentary system
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Tory
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Majority political party in England; a member of a political party in Great Britain from the late 17th century to about 1832 that favored royal authority over Parliament and the preservation of the existing social and political order: succeeded by the Conservative party.
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Whig
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Minority political party in England; a member of a major political party (1679–1832) in Great Britain that held liberal principles and favored reforms: later called the Liberal party.
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Liberal Party
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The merge of the aristocratic Whigs who had carried the Reform Bill with formerly radical industrialists and with a few Liberal Tories
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Conservative Party
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The joining of the main body of the Tories, joined by a few old Whigs and even a few former radicals
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Factory Act of 1833
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Forbade the labor of children less than nine years old in the textile mills; first effective piece of legislation on the subject b/c provided enforcement and inspectors; enacted by Tories
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Abolition of slavery
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Slavery was ended in England
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Great Reform Bill
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Adapted the English or medieval system rather than following the new ideas of the French Revolution; held to the idea that members of the House of Commons represented boroughs and counties, in general without regard to size of population (w/ exceptions); no attempt was made to create electoral districts, and the vote was still distributed in the reformed boroughs and counties on the basis of economic status, reliability, and permanence; number of voters was raised, while some people lost their vote; Electorate was redistributed by region an by class; reallocated the seats in the House of Commons; 56 smaller boroughs were abolished; 30 others kept right to send only one burgess to Parliament instead of the historic two; the 143 seats made available were given to the new industrial towns, where the middle-class gained the right to vote; some 2 dozen bills to Reform the House of Commons that had failed before but were later passed in one form or another
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Repeal of Corn Laws
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Whig-liberal-radical combination established an Anti-Corn Law League in 1838; had plenty of money, supplied by large donations form manufacturers and small ones from laborers; sent lecturers on tour, agitated in the newspapers, and issued a stream of pamphlets and educational books; held political teas, torchlight processions, and open-air mass meetings; pressure proved irresistible and received a final impetus from a famine in Ireland; Tory government headed by Robert Peel yielded in 1846; stands as a symbol of the change that had come over England and reaffirmed the revolutionary consequences of the Reform Bill of 1832
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bourgeoisie
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Formerly identified in contrast to the nobility was now identified in contrast to the working class, that is, those whose whole income depended on daily labor in shops, offices, farms, or factories; the employers; someone who could hire the labor of other people for business enterprises, recreational activities, or household services in the decades following 1830
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Poor Law of 1834
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Corrected the crying evils of the old poor laws that had left millions of people in habitual poverty but did nothing constructive to relieve productive workers from suffering from occasional or cyclical unemployment; main principle was to safeguard the labor market by making relief more unpleasant than any job; granted relief only to persons willing to enter a workhouse, or poorhouse; segregated sexes and unattractive lifestyle; hated by the working classes
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boom-bust
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Periods of prosperity followed by periods of poverty or decreased productivity; characteristic of a period of economic prosperity followed by a depression
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Chartism
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Somewhat socialist movement in Britain; Far more of a mass movement; anticapitalistic; all agreed that the first step toward social reform must be to win working-class representation; Charter of 1838 demanded the annual election of the House of Commons by universal suffrage for all adult males, through a secret ballot and equal electoral districts; called for the abolition of property qualifications for membership in the House of Commons, which perpetuated the old idea that Parliament should be composed of gentlemen of independent income, and urged instead the payment of salaries to the elected members of Parliament, in order that people of small means might serve; took 80 years to fully be recognized except annual elections
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