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41 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cognitive is important b/c...
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exploring the cognitive skills of animals tells us about the uniqueness of various human cognitive skills- just as exploring other planets can reveal the uniqueness of our terrestrial habitat
studies of comparative cognition are also important b/c they provide model ssystems for the investigation of the neurophysiological bases of cognitive fn studies of the mechanisms of cognition in animals may also help us in designing intelligent machines and robots |
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cognitive ethology
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a branch of ethology that assumes that consciousness, awareness, and intentionality can be inferred from the complexity, flexibility, and cleverness of certain forms of behavior
advocates of cognitive ethology claim that animals are capable of conscious thought and intentionality |
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comparative cognition
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theoretical constructs and models used to explain aspects of behavior that cannot be readily characterized in terms of simple s-r or reflex mechanisms. these mechanisms do not presume consciousness, awareness, or intentionality
refers to theoretical constructs and models used to explain aspects of behavior that cannot be readily characterized in terms of simple s-r or reflex mechanisms experimental psychologists make inferences about the internal or cognitive machinery that mediates behavior in cases where simple s-r or reflex mechanisms are insufficient |
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when we make casual inferences about the rich mental life of a bird or squirrel...
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we are projecting our own thoughts, emotions, and intentions on them
- the projections hamper knowledge of comparative cognition b/c they are impossible to prove and they prejudge the conclusions that we may arrive at through more systematic observations internal representations and their manipulations cannot be investigated directly by looking into the brain- they have to be inferred from behavior--thus a cognitive mechanism is a theoretical construct inferred from behavior |
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memory
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a term used to characterize instances in which an organism's current behavior is determined by some aspect of its previous experience
commonly used to refer to the ability to respond on the basis of information that was acquired earlier w/ animals we can't ask them to tell us what they did last week to see if they remember, instead we have to use their nonverbal responses as clues to its memory |
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studies of learning and studies of memory all involve basically 3 phases:
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acquisition, retention, and retrieval
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acquisition
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the initial stage of learning
the participants are exposed to certain kinds of stimuli or info ex: to be a skilled bicylclist, you first have to be trained to balance, pedal, and steer the bike |
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retention interval
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the time b/w acquisition of info and a test of memory for that information
the info that was acquired is then retained for some time ex: (for bike riding) after you learn you then have to remember those training experiences |
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retrieval
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the recovery of info from a memory store
at the end of the retention interval, the participants are tested for their memory of the original experience which require retrieval or reactivation of the info encountered during acquisition ex: (for bike riding) after you learn when you get on a bicycle again, you have to reactivate the kowledge of bike riding stored info is recovered so that it can be used to guide behavior |
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difference b/w studies of learning and memory
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learning- focus on the acquisition phase---involves manipulations of the conditions of acquisition-retention interval always fairly long b/c short term changes in behavior are not considered to be instances of learning
memory- focus on the retention and retrieval phases---retention interval often varied to determine hwo the availability of the acquired info changes w/ time-unlike learning (which uses long retention intervals), it can employ retention intervals of any duration; acquisition is of interest only to the extent that it is relevant to retention and retrieval |
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procedural memory
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memory for learned behavioral and cognitive skills that are performed automatically, w/out the requirement of conscious control, often reflecting knowledge about invariant relationships in the environment, such as CS-US contiguity (classical conditioning) or response-reinforcer contiguity (instrumental conditioning)
reflects knowledge about relationships among features of the environment and mediates teh learning of behavioral and cognitive skills that are performed automatically w/out the requirement of conscious control |
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episodic memory
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memory for a specific event or episode that includes info about what occurred and when and where it took place, as contrasted w/ memory for general facts or ways of doing things
or the memory for specific events |
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working memory
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temporary (short term) retention of info that is needed for successful responding on the task at hand but not on subsequent (or previous) similar tasks
is operative when info has to be retained only long enough to complete a particular task, after which the info is best discarded b/c it is not needed or b/c it may interfere w/ successful completion of the next trial working memory is often short lasting ex's of working memory illustrate the retention, for a limited duration, of recently acquired info |
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reference memory
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long-term retention of background info necessary for successful use of incoming and recently acquired info
is a long term retention of info necessary for the successful use of incoming and recently acquired info |
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delayed-matching-to-sample procedure
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a procedure in which particpants are reinforced for responding to a test stimulus that is the same as a sample stimulus that was present some time earlier
available for the study of working memory also can be used w/ auditory, visual or olfactory ex: study that made chimpanzees listen to a vocalization and then shown 2 clips of chimps vocalizing and had to choose which one made that noise-- concluded that like ppl, chimpanzees can read lips |
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trace decay hypothesis
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the theoretical idea that exposure to a stimulus produces changes in the nervous system that gradually and automatically decrease after the stimulus has been terminated
explains the results of Figure 11.2 about pigeons and how when the sample was presented for 4, 8,or 14 secs the birds performed above chance levels even at the longest delay interval (60 s) it assumes that presentation of a stimulus produces changes in the nervous system that gradually dissipate, or decay, after the stimulus is turned off the longer or more intense stimuli are presumed to produce stronger stimulus traces the extent to which the memory of an event controls behavior depends on the strength of the stimulus trace at that moment the stronger the trace, the stronger is the effect of the past stimulus on the organism's behavior |
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matching to sample procedure is analogous to a discrimination problem in that...
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the participant has to respond to the correct stimulus and refrain form responding to the incorrect one to get reinforced
the participant can make the correct choice by focusing on the correct stimulus, by inhibiting behavior to the incorrect stimulus, or by using both these response strategies |
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same-as rule
or learn a series of specific rules or stimulus-response relations (a general rule) |
choose the choice stimulus which is the same as the sample
horizontal lines go with green so pick them together and red goes with vertical lines |
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tests of transfer of matching performance to new stimuli
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in tests of transfer from one matching-to-sample to another, general rule learning should produce better performance than specific-rule learning
specific stimulus-response learning should not facilitate performance w/ new stimuli, b/c the required stimulus-response association has not been learned yet the first time subs are presented w/ a novel sample stimuli in contrast, general rule learning predicts considerable positive carryover, b/c the general same-as rule can be used to solve any matching-to-sample problem |
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trails unique procedure
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a matching-to-sample procedure in which diff sample and comparison stimuli are used on each trial
in a trials-unique procedure, a diff stimulus serves as the sample on each trial and is paired w/ another stimulus during the choice phase - accurate performance w/ a trials-unique procedure is possible only if the participant learns to respond on the basis of a general same-as rule |
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stimulus coding
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how a stimulus is represented in memory
is a critical feature of the acquisition phase of memory |
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cognitive map
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the idea that animals form a cognitive map which ten guides their spatial navigation has been a prominent hypothesis for many years
the dominant issue in contemporary research on the coding of spatial info is how info from beacons, landmarks, geometric features, and spatial gradients is integrated into a coherent cognitive map |
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beacon following
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ex: a rabbit could find the patch of food by looking at the rock and aiming straight for it
- the rock serves as a beacon that marks the location of the goal sign tracking is an ex of beacon following |
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landmark
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is a distinctive stimulus that is not at the goal location, but has a fixed relation to the goal
ex: the rabbit could find the food patch by going past and to the right of the bush-- in this case it would be using the bush as a landmark to guide its navigation -- subjs can also find the goal location by using info derived from several landmarks- ex: using both the tree and the bush |
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geometric features
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ex: how bush, rock, and tree outline the shape of a triangle-- this provides an additional cue for spatial localization
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spatial gradient
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distance cues that indicate how far away an object is
ex: objs farther away being smaller, less bright, and less distinct |
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retrospective coding (retrospection)
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memory for a previously experienced event or response (remembering a past event)
ex: an animal keeps in mind where they have already been on the maze arms |
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prospective coding (prospection)
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memory for an expected future event or response (remembering a plan for future action)
ex: and animal has to keep in mind which maze arms they have yet to visit |
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how do you decrease your memory load?
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start off w/ retrospective strategy and halfway switch over to prospective
retrospective coding strategy-- working memory starts off with a small list and then increases as you progress through a shopping trip prospective coding strategy-- starts off w/ a big list and decreases as you progress through your shopping trip |
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rehearsal
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maintaining info in an active state, available to influence behavior and/or the processing of other info
second phase of memory processes refers to keeping info in an active state, readily available for use relate to the learning of new associations |
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directed forgetting
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forgetting that occurs b/c of a stimulus (a forget cue) that indicates that working memory will not be tested on that trial. directed forgetting is an ex of the stimulus control of memory
studies of human memory have shown that the accuracy of recall can be modified by cues or instructions indicating that something should (or should not) be remembered |
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retrieval failure
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a deficit in recovering info from a memory store
many instances of memory failure reflect deficits in the recovery of info rather than loss of the info from the memory store |
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retrieval cues
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stimuli related to an experience that facilitates the recall of other info related to that experience
retrieval processes triggered by reminders ex: if you are discussing summer camp experiences w/ your friends, the things they say will serve as retrieval cues to remind you of things you did at summer camp retrieval cues are effective in reminding you of a past experience b/c they are associated w/the memory for that experience |
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forgetting
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failure to remember previously acquired info
forgetting is the flip side of memory increases behavioral variability can reduce the context specificity of learning and thereby permit learned behavior to occur in a broader range of situations failures of memory, or forgetting, can occur for a variety of reasons: ex: acquisition of info, coding, rehearsal and retention, retrieval |
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proactive interference
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disruption of memory caused by exposure to stimuli b/f the event to be remembered
interfering info acts forward to disrupt the memory of a future target event ex: can't remember the names of the people you met after Alice b/c you have been keeping her name in mind to remember it |
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retroactive interference
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disruption of memory caused by exposure to stimuli following the event to be remembered
interfering stimulus acts backward to disrupt the memory of a preceding target event ex: can't remember Alice's name b/c of all the ppl you met after her |
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retrograde amnesia
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a gradient of memory loss going back in time form the occurrence of a major injury or physiological disturbance. amnesia is greatest for events that took place closest to the time of injury and less for events experienced earlier
ex: may forget how the injury happened as in whether the traffic light was green or red, but can remember name and address, and where you grew up, and what you prefer for dessert --the farther back you go from the time of injury, the better the memory --there is a gradient of memory loss, w/ forgetting limited to events that occurred close to the accident |
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memory consolidation
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the establishment of a memory in relatively permanent form, or the transfer of info from short-term to long-term memory
according to the memory consolidation hypothesis, when a stimulus is first encountered, it enters a short term, or temporary, memory store; while in short term mem, the info is vulnerable and can be lost b/c of interfering stimuli or neurophysiological disturbances |
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reconsolidation
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the process of stabilizing or consolidating a reactivated memory. Presumably the disruption of this reconsolidation leads to modification or forgetting of the original memory
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amnesia
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loss of memory
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memory processes involve
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1) acquisition and coding of info
2) rehearsal and retention 3) retrieval --difficulties in any of these phases, or problems involving interactions among them, can result in failures of memory, or forgetting |
