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42 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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α Learning Disabilities
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o affect the ability of the child to communicate & meet the challenges of education
o impairments of one or more academic skills, that cannot be accounted for by sensory or motor deficits, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, economic disadvantage o newly identified subtype of learning disorder, social emotional learning disability, has been proposed |
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What do common learning disabilities involve?
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1) reading or dyslexia
2) arithmetic or dyscalculia 3) written expression or dysphasia |
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dyslexia
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o be acquired by insult to a previously normal functioning brain or maybe be developmental in origin
o runs in families, suggesting a genetic etiology o A child with parents affected with dyslexia is 8x more likely to exhibit the disorder than children of parents who are not reading disabled o increasing convergence on two basic subtypes |
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1st subtype of dyslexia
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o The first subtype encompasses children with significant reading deficits caused by possible visual & visual-perceptual anomalies,
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2nd subtype of dyslexia
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whereas the second relates to children whose reading impairment stems from auditory-language dysfunction
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Dyslexia and flicker fusion
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o Flicker fusion rate is the speed at which two separate visual images fuse into a single image when rapidly presented
o reading-disabled children & adults show slower flicker fusion rates when presented images of low spatial density & contrast (brightness) |
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Magnocellular-deficit theory of dyslexia
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controls the processing of this form of visual input
deficits in visual input |
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Phonological deficit theory of dyslexia
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o Although dyslexia as a consequence of underlying deficits in visual processing has received attention, impairment in phonological processing as the central feature of the disorder has received much more support
o The term phonological processing refers to the application of rules for translating letters & letter sequences into their corresponding speech-sound equivalents |
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word decoding
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o exhibit deficits in translating letter strings into word sounds, also called
o Relatedly, dyslexic children often have problems spelling because they can’t efficiently translate the phonological representation of a word to its visual configuration, a process that is the converse of what reading requires some adults have lifelong problems with dyslexia |
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Dyslexia Research
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o The primary emphasis on neuropsychological research concerning dyslexia has focused on the language cortex of the left hemisphere of right-handed individuals
o During this period the gyri are rapidly forming, suggesting that the origin of developmental dyslexia, whether genetically determined or a consequence of an insult, can be traced to a period of fetal development o Children with either dyslexia or ADHD present bilaterally smaller frontal cortexes than normal control children |
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Byron Rourke
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revealed two basic subtypes of learning disability:
1) R-S, for reading & spelling disability; 2) NVLD, for nonverbal learning disability syndrome o hypothesized that the NVLD syndrome reflects right hemisphere (particularly posterior) damage, or dysfunction, whereas R-S deficits more closely reflect problems in the left, language-dominant, hemisphere system |
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NVLD
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-frequently exhibit arithmetic deficits
-adaptive & socioemotional disturbances accompany the disorder - communication deficits in verbal & nonverbal behaviors |
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NVLD & social behavior
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deficits in social sensitivity, interactional skills, social problem solving, & judgment seriously hinder the efforts of individuals with NVLD to relate to other
o Because of poor social judgment, caretakers & peers view the individual with NVLD as lacking in common sense |
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Treating NVLD
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o The child needs help developing verbal & nonverbal communication skills, basic social skills (such as greeting), & more advanced social skills (social awareness, friendship skills, & social problem solving skills)
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NVLD Risks
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o Children with NVLD are at risk for developing psychological difficulties
o Parents & professionals should be aware of this risk & prepare to provide early interventions if psychological problems arise o School-age children who suffer from NVLD are at risk for academic difficulties, particularly if spatial reasoning or executive deficits are severe |
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α Pervasive Developmental Disorders
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encompass a set of very severe neuropsychological deficits that are evident early in childhood & have a poor prognosis for achieving normal adaptive functioning
o However, in many cases the origin of the disorder remains unknown |
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Who is credited with the identification of autism?
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Leo Kanner & Hans Asperger
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Autism
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o entails severe impairments in social relatedness & language development, & the presentation of unusual, repetitive, &/or stereotypic patterns of behavior
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Social deficits in autism
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o The first area of disturbance is autism, impairment in the ability to relate to others, particularly with regard to understanding & entering into reciprocal social relationships, is the cardinal symptom of the disorder
o Kanner referred to this very dramatic aspect of behavior as “autistic aloneness,” a psychological state of profound separation & disconnection from other people o Child exhibits this social disconnection o Moreover, autistic children often show deficits in joint attention (reciprocal attention between the child & another), poor conversational skills, lack of eye contact, unusual body postures or gestures, & inappropriate facial expressions |
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Language impairments in autism
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deviant forms of language such as echolalia (repeating the words or phrases of others), pronoun reversal, & neologisms (invention of words)
o The ability to understand language is often impaired & limited to the comprehension of simple, literal contents |
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Early signs of autism
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o Initially, the child shows little interest in toys, suggesting delayed or poor comprehension of the symbolic meaning of toys
o The autistic child can rarely partake in complex, imaginative, or cooperative play o As the autistic child moves into the toddler & preschool years, the onset of speech & language is often delayed, or may fail to develop altogether o The play of the autistic child lacks sophistication in both structured & unstructured environments o During the toddler & early preschool years, the parents begin to realize their child is not developing appropriately |
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Unusual behavioral patterns that often characterize autism
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(1) preoccupation with specific areas or interest, objects, or qualities of objects;
(2) demands for environmental or behavioral sameness; (3) stereotypic body movements or abnormalities of posture |
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Other characteristics of autism
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o Finally, disturbances of motility can encompass a wide range of movements such as rocking, spinning, twisting, or hand flapping
o Many autistic children (50% to 80%) function within the retarded range of intelligence, as evident in IQ scores below 70 o That is, the higher level of intelligence, the less severe the autistic symptoms |
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Asperger’s syndrome
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refers to a group of children or adults who exhibit autistic-like symptoms, but fail to strictly fulfill that autism criteria
o Reveals a significant overlap in symptoms related to impairment o Despite this overlap, the APA proposes several differences |
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o Children diagnosed as exhibiting Asperger’s syndrome, as contrasted with autism, showed a greater
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• (1) desire for social contact & friendship;
• (2) willingness to participate in play with other children centered on their special interest, such as dinosaurs; • (3) likelihood of normal onset of language development & an absence of echolalia; • (4) use of odd words of speech, pedantic speech, & one-sided, repetitive conversations; • 5) tendency to pursue narrow & limited areas of interest, such as preoccupation with clocks; • (6) likelihood of being inattentive, impulsive, & overactive |
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Autism v. Asperger's
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Asperger's show fewer language deficitso
Thus, children with Asperger’s syndrome may simply be brighter autistic children who show fewer language deficits o Accordingly, Asperger’s syndrome may merely reflect the changing presentation, over time, of higher-functioning autistic individuals |
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Autism Research
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o The substantial co-occurrence rates for identical twins suggest that genetic factors play a significant role in the etiology of autism
o The neural substrates considered to produce autism are numerous, but none have received unanimous support |
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Diagnosing Autism
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o The diagnosis of autism requires a careful review of the child’s developmental history & observations of the child with family members, teachers, & peers.
o In addition, a complete medical evaluation & review of pertinent medical records should be standard practice because of the potential presence of genetic & chromosomal abnormalities o The neuropsychological evaluation of the autistic child should involve a comprehensive assessment of cognitive & related behaviors |
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o Executive planning & response inhibition.
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• Executive planning involves complex, means-end problem solving to achieve a behavioral goal, & response inhibition is the ability to delay a response
• The children with autism & fragile X demonstrated deficits in executive planning, verbal working memory, & mental flexibility, but not in response inhibition • In summary, autistic children demonstrate executive deficits, particularly as related to planning & mental flexibility • In addition, children with autism & Asperger’s syndrome seem to present distinct cognitive profiles |
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Autism Theories
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o Multiple theories & models are available to account for the behavioral manifestations, core deficits, etiology of autism
o Recently, Waterhouse & coworkers proposed a comprehensive model to account for the heterogeneity of symptoms & etiologies of autism o It proposes four neurofunctional impairments that, in interaction, account for the social & related behavioral disruptions of autism |
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Autistic children
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o Professional services are typically sought, & the child is involved in a series of medical, psychological, speech, language, & related evaluations
o Autistic behavioral excesses & deficits continue to be evident during the child’s elementary school years o Despite this improvement, the child remains developmentally delayed & continues to exhibit unusual behavioral patterns o The vast majority of the children cannot enter a normal educational program o Peer interactions are minimal, & most autistic children never develop a close friendship o Approximately 80% of autistic individuals are unable to move fully into the workforce & up to one-half require lifelong residential care |
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current autistic treatments
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o Currently, the most significant treatments for autism & other pervasive developmental disorders include behavioral interventions, special education, & occasionally, pharmacology
o Autistic & related disorders generally do not fully resolve o Caretakers generally employ behavior modification as a treatment program o Several investigators consider behavior modification one of the more effective treatment options for autistic children o Caretakers use both rewarding & aversive behavior interventions to bring about desired change o Finally, some autistic children benefit from pharmacological interventions for reducing specific autistic symptoms such as self-injurious behaviors, hyperactivity, ritualistic behaviors, & aggression |
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α Disruptive Behavioral Disorders
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o The American Psychiatric Association currently classifies disruptive, or externalizing behavioral disorders as psychiatric disorders
o These disorders feature a variety of poorly controlled or acting-out behaviors that are developmentally inappropriate or violate societal dictates for acceptable behavior o The three primary representations at this category are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), & conduct disorder (CD) |
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ADHD symtpoms
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o The core symptom patterns include age-inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, & hyperactivity
o Thus, the behavioral symptoms of ADHD are not transient in presentation & generally continue into adolescence & adulthood o Further, these symptoms are typically observed before school age & across multiple contexts such as home, school, & community |
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common comorbid conditions of ADHD
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1) ODD
2) Conduct Disorder 3) antisocial personality disorder 3) substance abuse 4) alcoholism 5) mood disorders |
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ODD chracteristics
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o ODD is characterized by chronic, age-inappropriate angry mood & resistant, stubborn behaviors, & CD involves the repeated violations of the rights of others or of societal norms
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ADHD
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o The breakdown of ADHD figures by gender reveals that boys, as compared to
etiology unknown o ADHD is a familial disorder, possibly inheritable ADHD is evident early in childhood &, with maturation, shows changing symptom manifestations |
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ADHD characteristics
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o In infancy, children displaying ADHD tend to be highly active, overly responsive to stimulation, quick to anger, & show low adaptability to change
o During the toddler & preschool years, children with ADHD are continually “on the go,” seem “driven by a motor,” continually manipulate objects, & shift across activities o In preschool setting, children with ADHD often find it difficult to remain, fail to listen to or follow directions, become too excited when stimulated, & talk loudly & incessantly |
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o Specifically, the school requirements for
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o All tax the controlling effects of children displaying ADHD
• (1) attention to work that can be boring, tedious, & effortful, • (2) organization of assignments & belongings • (3) completion of work without rushing • (4) remaining seated for long periods of time • (5) adherence to multiple classroom rules • (6) reflection before responding • (7) refraining from talking unless permitted • (8) cooperation with others |
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Treating ADHD
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o Each child presents a unique set of strengths & weaknesses &, accordingly, warrants an individual treatment plan tailored to his or her individual needs
o In targeting the ADHD child’s needs, the core symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, & hyperactivity serve as the primary point of intervention o The two primary, & most successful interventions with ADHD are behavioral management & psychopharmacology |
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Behavioral management
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o involves using learning principles to develop interventions to facilitate or inhibit behavior
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psychopharmacological interventions
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o The stimulant medication (namely, Ritalin, Adderall, Dexedrine, & Cylert) are the most frequently prescribed medications or ADHD
o Interestingly, despite the widespread use & effectiveness of stimulant medications, neuroscientists do not completely understand the neurochemical actions of the drugs o Impact of stimulant medication on the brain’s neurotransmitters, specifically dopamine & norepinephrine, resulting in increased inhibitory control across cognitive & behavioral systems o The core symptoms reemerge when the child is unmedicated |
