Ch. 6 And 8- Classical Conditiong, Sleep, And Dreams

Front 1

Who discovered classical conditioning through work on digestion in dogs?

Back 1

Ivan Pavlov (Russian physiologist)

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What is Classical Conditioning?

Back 2

Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex

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Classical Conditioning Concepts

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1) The CS must come before the UCS
2) The CS and UCS must come very close together in time (ideally only seconds apart)
3) The neutral stimulus must be paired w/ UCS several times, often many times, before conditioning can take place
4) The CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuli

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Habituation

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General process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

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Learning

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Some experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an unconditional stimulus

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

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Acquisition

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The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and US are presented together

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Second-order Conditioning

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Conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS

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Extinction

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Disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus or the removal of a reinforcer

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

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Generalization

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Tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original CS w/ the CR

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Discrimination

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The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS because the similar stimulus is never paired w/ UCS

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Three Areas for Classical Conditioning

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1) Neural (amygdala important for emotional conditioning)

2) Cognitive (Expectation)
--Rescorla-Wagner model
--a CS served to set up an expectation. Expectation leads to an array of behaviors associated w/ the presence of the CS

3) Evolutionary
---Adaptive value

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Stimulus substitution

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Original theory in which Pavlov stated that class. cond. occurred because the CS became a substitute for the UCS by being paired closely together

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Operant Conditioning

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Learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses

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Thorndike's Law of Effect

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States that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant experience, it will tend not to be repeated

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Skinner's Contribution

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Behaviorist; wanted only to study observable, measurable behavior

Gave operant conditioning its name
--Operant--> Any behavior that is voluntary

Learning depends on what happens after the response (the consequence)

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John B. Watson

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Founder of Behaviorism

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Operant Behavior

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Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

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Shaping

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The reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior

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Reinforcement

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Any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again

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Primary Reinforcer

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Any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger

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Secondary Reinforcer

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Derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary enforcers through classical conditioning

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Positive Reinforcement

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Something desirable is presented

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Negative Reinforcement

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Something undesirable is removed

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Positive Punishment

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Something unpleasant is administered

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Negative Punishment

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Something desirable is removed

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Premack Principle

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Discerning which of two activities someone would rather engage in means the preferred activity can be used to reinforce a nonpreferred one

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Overjustification Effect

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When external rewards can undermine the intrinsic satisfaction of performing a behavior

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Some differences between operant and classical....

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Operant: Reinforcements only occur when proper response has been made and they don't always occur even then

Classical: the US occurs on every trial no matter what the organism does

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Interval Schedules

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Based on time intervals between reinforcements

Fixed Interval: Reinforcements presented at fixed time periods, when appropriate response is made

Variable Interval: Behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement


Tend to produce slow, methodical responding because the reinforcements follow a time scale that is independent of how many responses occur

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Ratio Schedules

Back 35

Based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements

Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

Variable Ratio: Delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

Encourage high and consistent rates of responding because the number of rewards received is directly related to the number of responses

Higher the ratio= HIgher response rate

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Intermittent Reinforcement

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Only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

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Intermittent Reinforcement Effect

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The fact that operant behaviors are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

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Successive Approximation

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Behavior that gets incrementally closer to the overall desired behavior

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Every response is followed by presentation of reinforcer

one to one (perfect) correlation

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Intermittent Reinforcement

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Correlation is weaker (not zero)

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In 1950s and 1960s, Cognition

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the mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving

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Observational Learning

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Learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior; learning takes place by watching the actions of others

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Learning/Performance Distinction

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Referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior

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Latent learning

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Learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

Rat & maze experiment

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Altered State of Consciousness

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Form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind

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Sleep and Dreams Provide 2 unique perspectives on consciousness

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1) A view of the mind w/o consciousness
2) A view of consciousness in altered state

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Hypnagogic State

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Presleep consciousness

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Hypnic Jerk

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Sudden quiver or sensation of dropping

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Hypnopompic State

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Postsleep consciousness

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Five Sleep Stages

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1) Theta waves (lower than alpha)

2) Sleep spindles and K complexes (sleeper becomes more difficult to wake)

3 & 4) Deepest stages of sleep (slow wave sleep; delta waves)

5) REM sleep: a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements & a high level of brain activity

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Stage 1

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Theta waves (lower than alpha)

Avg. about 10 minutes

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Stage 2

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Sleep spindles & K Complexes (sleeper becomes more difficult to wake)

As long as 20 minutes

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Stage 3

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Deepest stages of sleep

Delta waves

As long as 40 minutes

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Stage 4

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Deepest stages of sleep

Delta waves

30-40 minutes

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Stage 5

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REM sleep

few minutes to an hour

lighter than lower stages but still hard to awaken

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Electrooculograph (EOG)

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A device to measure eye movements

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Electrooculogram (EOG)

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Contact electrodes detect rotation/elevation of the eyeball (an electrical dipole)

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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Contact electrodes detect massed activity of neurons at the surface of the cortex

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Electromyogram (EMG)

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Contact electrodes detect degree of muscle tone

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Most dreams occur during REM periods

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Dreams during non-REM sleep are more like normal thinking and less wild

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Cycle between REM and slow-wave sleep stages how often?

Back 61

Every 90 minutes

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Periods of REM last longer or shorter throughout the night?

Back 62

Longer

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What stages disappear halfway throughout the night?

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3 and 4

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Over a whole lifetime we get about 1 hour of sleep for every how many hours awake?

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2 hours awake

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Sleep deprivation has cumulative detrimental effects

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- Reducing mental acuity & reaction time

-Increasing irritability & depression

-Increasing risk of accidents & injury

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REM sleep important for what?

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Psychologically

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Stages 3 & 4 important for what?

Back 67

Physical effects

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Insomnia

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Difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep

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Sleeping pills

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Reduce proportion of time spent in REM and slow wave sleep

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Sleep apnea

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Disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep

common in middle aged, overweight men

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Somnambulism

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A person arises and walks around while asleep (sleepwalking)

usually in slow-wave sleep

11 & 12 yr olds

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Narcolepsy

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Disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities

--Genetic basis

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Sleep paralysis

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Experience of waking up unable to move

happens in hypnagogic or hypnopompic

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Night terrors

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Abrupt awakenings w/ panic & intense emotional arousal

Mainly in boys ages 3-7

happen most often in non-REM sleep

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5 Characteristics distinguishing dream consciousness from waking state

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1) Emotion
2) Thought is illogical
3) Sensation (fully formed & meaningful)
4) Uncritical acceptance
5) Difficulty of remembering

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Freud

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1900-1965

Proposed that dreams are confusing & obscure because the dynamic unconscious creates them precisely to be confusing & obscure

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Freud's theory

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Dreams represent wishes

--Some of the wishes are so unacceptable & anxiety producing that the mind can only express them in disguised form

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Manifest Content

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A dream's apparent topic or superficial meaning

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Latent Content

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A dream's underlying meaning

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Activation-Synthesis Model

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The theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of activations that occur randomly during sleep

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Activation-Synthesis Theory

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Dreams begin randomly, but meaning can be added as the mind lends interpretations in the process of dreaming

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Psychoactive Drugs

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Chemicals that influence consciousness or behavior by altering the brains chemical message system

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How do drugs alter neural connections?

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By preventing the bonding of neurotransmitters to sites in the postsynaptic neuron or by inhibiting the reuptake of or enhancing the bonding and transmission of neurotransmitters

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Drug Tolerance

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The tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect

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Psychological Dependence

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A strong desire to return to the drug even when physical withdrawal symptoms are gone

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Depressants

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Substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system

ex) alcohol

effects:
calming feeling
induce sleep in high doses
can arrest breathing in high doses
can produce physical and psychological dependence

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Alcohol

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Increases activity of neurotransmitter GABA

GABA normally inhibits transmission of neural impulses

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Disinhibitor

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A chemical that lets transmission occur that otherwise would be held in check

Alcohol acts as a disinhibitor

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Expectancy Theory

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Suggests that alcohol effects are produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations

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Balanced Placebo Design

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Behavior is observed following the presence or absence of an actual stimulus and also following the presence or absence of a placebo stimulus

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Alcohol Myopia

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Proposes that alcohol hampers attention, leading ppl to respond in simple ways to complex situations

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Stimulants

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Substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels

ex) caffeine, nicotine, cocaine

Increase levels of dopamine & norepinephrine

increase alertness and energy in user

produce physical and psychological dependence

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Narcotics or Opiates

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Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain

Produces tolerance and dependence

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Endorphins or Endogenous Opiates

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Neurotransmitters that are closely related to opiates

reduce pain & increase feelings of well-being

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Hallucinogens

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Drugs that alter sensation and perception, often causing hallucinations

Drugs that produce the most extreme alterations of consciousness

unlikely to be addictive
do not induce significant tolerance or dependence and overdose deaths are rare

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Marijuana

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Leaves & buds of the hemp plant

THC is active ingredient

Affects judgment and short-term memory

Impairs motor skills and coordination

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Anandamide

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Involved in regulation of mood, memory, appetite, & pain perception

Neurotransmitter that activates receptors in brain that respond to THC

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Hypnosis

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An altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occurring involuntarily

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Posthypnotic Amnesia

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The failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget

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Hypnotic Analgesia

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The reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are hypnotically susceptible

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Right anterior cingulate cortex

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An area involved in the regulation of attention

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Saccads

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Rapid eye flicks

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REM rebound

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Increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights

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REM behavior disorder

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A rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares

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Theories of Dreams

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Freud: Dreams are a route to the unconscious, manifest, & latent content

Evans: Modification & reorganization of information

Hobson: Dreaming is like hallucination, disorientation, amnesia