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21 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Negative Affectivity
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• Tendency to experience negative moods
• Experience greater stress than those with less negativity • Strongest of any individual influence on psychological/emotional stress |
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Motivation
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the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work
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Maslow's Hierarchy of needs
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o Physiological needs → Safety needs → Social and Belongingness needs → Esteem needs → Self-Actualization
o “Lower level needs must be satisfied before a person can be motivated by higher level needs” o Three main criticisms • Some needs people have not modeled • People can be motivated by more than one need at the same time • People can move down the pyramid [order of needs] |
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Two-factor theory
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o Developed by Frederick Herzberg
o Hygiene factors • Elements of the job context • Sources of job dissatisfaction • Working conditions • Co-worker relations • Policies and rules • Supervisor quality • Base wage, salary o Satisfier factors • Elements of the job content • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation • Achievement • Recognition • Responsibility • Work itself • Advancement • Personal growth o Improving the motivator factors increases job satisfaction o Improving the hygiene factors decreases job dissatisfaction |
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Acquired needs theory
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o Developed by David McClelland
o People acquire needs through their life experiences o Needs that are acquired: • Need for Achievement • Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks • People high in (nAch) prefer work that: • Involves individual responsibility for results • Involves achievable but challenging goals • Provides feedback on performance • Need for Affiliation (nAff) • Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons • People high in (nAff) prefer work that: • Involves interpersonal relationships • Provides for companionship • Brings social approval • Need for Power • Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people • Personal power versus institutional power • People high in (nPower) prefer work that: • Involves control over other persons • Has an impact on people and events • Brings public recognition and attention |
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Content Theories
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Two factor, Acquired needs theory, Maslow
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Process Theories
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Equity theory, expectancy theory, goal setting theory, self efficacy theory
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Equity theory
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o Developed by J. Stacy Adams
o When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation • Perceived inequity • Individual feels discomfort and acts to eliminate the inequity • Perceived equity • Individual satisfied and does not change behavior o People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: • Work inputs • Rewards received • Comparison points • Situation o Procedural justice o Managerial implications • Underpaid people experience anger • Overpaid people experience guilt • Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes • Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated • Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace • Gender equity • Comparable worth |
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Expectancy theory
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o Developed by Victor Vroom
o Key expectancy theory variables: • Expectancy – belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance • Instrumentality – belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards • Valence – value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes o Motivation, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: • M = E x I x V • If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low o Managerial implications • To maximize expectancy, managers should: • Select workers with ability • Train workers to use ability • Support work efforts • Clarify performance goals • To maximize instrumentality, managers should: • Clarify psychological contracts • Communicate performance-outcome possibilities • Identify rewards that are contingent on performance • To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should: • Identify individual needs • Adjust rewards to match individual needs |
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Instrumentality
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belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
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Valence
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value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes
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ways to maximize expectancy
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• Select workers with ability
• Train workers to use ability • Support work efforts • Clarify performance goals |
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ways to maximize instrumentality
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• Clarify psychological contracts
• Communicate performance-outcome possibilities • Identify rewards that are contingent on performance |
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ways to maximize valence
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• Identify individual needs
• Adjust rewards to match individual needs |
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Goal-setting Theory
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o Developed by Edwin Locke
o Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating o Motivational effects of task goals: • Provide direction to people in their work • Clarify performance expectations • Establish a frame of reference for feedback • Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management o Key issues and principles in the goal-setting process • Set specific goals • Set challenging goals • Build goal performance and commitment • Clarify goal priorities • Provide feedback on goal accomplishment • Reward goal accomplishment • Participation in goal setting • Unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting • Management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation • When participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist |
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Self-efficacy theory
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o Person’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task
o Capability directly affects motivation • Higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy • Self-efficacy o Enactive mastery • Person gains confidence through positive experience o Vicarious modeling • Learning by observing others o Verbal persuasion • Encouragement from others that one can perform a task o Emotional arousal • High stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation |
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reinforcement theory
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• Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior
• Law of effect – impact of type of consequence on future behavior • Operant conditioning: • Developed by B.F. Skinner • Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences • Strategies o Positive reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence o Negative reinforcement • Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence o Punishment • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence o Extinction • Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of a pleasant consequence • Guidelines for using punishment • Tell the person what is being done wrong • Tell the person what is being done right • Match the punishment to the behavior • Administer punishment in private • Follow laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement |
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automation
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• Total mechanization of a job
• Most extreme form of job simplification |
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job rotation
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• Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments
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job enlargement
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• Increases task variety by combining two or more…
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Flexible working hours
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• Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours
• Core time – all employees must be at work • Flex time – allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities |
