Ch. 11 Problem Solving

Front 1

What is the problem solving cycle?

Back 1

steps to solve problems which includes problem identification, problem definition, strategy formulation, organization of inforamtion, allocation of resources, monitoring, and evaluation

Front 2

what is divergent thinking?

Back 2

Try to generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem

Front 3

What is convergent thinking?

Back 3

to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converrge on a single best answer.

Front 4

what are well structured problems?

Back 4

they have a clear path to solutions

Front 5

ill structured problems

Back 5

lack clear path to solutions

Front 6

what is the problem space

Back 6

universe of all possible actions that can be applied to solving a problem, given any constraints that apply to the solution of the problem; consists of states and operators

Front 7

algorithms:

Back 7

sequences of operations that may be repeated over and over agian that guarantee the solution to a problem

Front 8

isomorphic:

Back 8

formal structure is the same but only their content differs

Front 9

insight

Back 9

distinctive and sometimes sudden understand of a problem, and is more often associated with ill-structured problems.

Front 10

what are ways that can hinder problem solving?

Back 10

mental sets, and functional fixedness

Front 11

what is mental set?

Back 11

frae of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or procedure for problem solving. Another term is entrenchment

Front 12

water jar problem is an example of what?

Back 12

mental set. Using it even though there is an easier solution to the problem.

Front 13

functional fixedness

Back 13

inability to realize that something known to have a particular use may also be used for performing other functions...prevent us from solving new problems by using old tools in new ways.

Front 14

negative transfer:

Back 14

solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one

Front 15

positive transfer

Back 15

solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem

Front 16

transparency

Back 16

when people see analogies when they do not exist because of similarity of content

Front 17

Incubation

Back 17

putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it, and is a solution to minimize negative transfer.

Front 18

Global planning and intelligence

Back 18

More intelligent take longer during global planning..encoding the problem and formulating a general strategy for attack, and less time for local planning.

Front 19

Expertise:

Back 19

superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-developed and well-organized knowledge base.

Front 20

Difference between an expert and a novice

Back 20

storing of knowledge ad ways to sotre and organize information.

Front 21

schematization

Back 21

what experts use and involves deeloping rich, highly organized schemas.

Front 22

Automization

Back 22

consolidating sequences of steps into unified routines that require little or no conscious control...

Front 23

What is the Turning Test?

Back 23

Whether an observer can distinguish the performance of a computer from that of a human

Front 24

what are expert systems

Back 24

computer programs that can perform the way an expert does in a fairly specific domain

Front 25

Creativity

Back 25

process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile.

Front 26

what is the investment theory of creativity?

Back 26

creative individuals take a buy low sell high approach to ideas, and that multiple individuals and environmental factors must converge for creativity to occur

Front 27

What is problem representation?

Back 27

Importance of determining what info is relevant and what info is irrelevant

Front 28

What errors do people make is well structured problems?

Back 28

1. inadvertently move backward
2. Make illegal moves
3. not realizing the nature of the next move

Front 29

In problem solving, what is under the initial state?

Back 29

1. Current situation
2. Define the problem

Front 30

In problem solving, what is the goal state?

Back 30

desired objective

Front 31

In problem solving, what are the obstacles?

Back 31

choices made about limitations
strategy choices
limited resources

Front 32

What are the four heuristics for problem solving?

Back 32

mean end analysis
working forward
working backward
generate and test

Front 33

what is means-end analysis?

Back 33

1. compare current state with the goal ad choose an action to bring you closer to the goal
2. Break a problem down into small subgoals
3. may not work if subgoals can't be identified
ex: monopoly winning

Front 34

what is working forward

Back 34

start at initial and work to goal state
oftenused in math problems

Front 35

What is working backward?

Back 35

figure out the last step needed to reach your goal, then the next to the last step and so on...lost keys...work backward

Front 36

Generate and test

Back 36

1. Trial and error strategy...disgard the ones that are incorrect..car doesn't start, try battery, try gas..etc...but maye the most inefficient strategyq

Front 37

What is the problem with recognizing isomorphic?

Back 37

participants have difficulty recognizing that past solututions will help them solve the current problem

Front 38

What is functional fixedness?

Back 38

problem to assign new functions and roles to elements of a problem..inability to assign new rules to oldproblems

Front 39

In positive transfer experiments, Gick and Holyok found what?

Back 39

The highest had the analogy and hint...that the previous answer would help solve the next (radiation and fortress)

Front 40

What are factors affecting the use of analogies?

Back 40

1. similarity
2. number of examples exposed to
3. Whether schema is activated

Front 41

How does incubation help?

Back 41

1. release from a problem solving set or functional fixedness
2. Retrieval of new information by changing content
3. REcovery from fatigue

Front 42

Intelligence and global and local planning

Back 42

Higher intelligence
longer global planning
faster local planning

Front 43

How do experts differ from novices?

Back 43

1. better schemas
2. Well-organized knowledge in specific domain
3. less time to set up a problem
4. Select more appropriate strategies
5. faster at solving problems
6. are more accurate