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48 Cards in this Set

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Identify and contrast the four frequency classes of brain wave seen in an EEG (electroencephalogram).
- Alpha - low amplitude; slow (8-13 Hz), rhythmic waves; awake and resting (eyes closed); calmed relaxed state of wakefulness
- Beta - rhythmic; more irregular; higher frequency (14-30 Hz); mentally alert and concentrating
- Theta - slow (4-7 Hz); more irregular; transiently during sleep; most often seen in kids/frustrated adults; disorders/tumors of the brain
- Delta - high amplitude; low frequency (1-4 Hz); deep sleep; RAS (reticular activating system) is dampened (like with anesthetic); in awake adults = brain damage
What is conciousness?
- higher mental capabilities: thinking learning, logic, judgement, conscience
- Perceptions of sensations; volumtary skeletal muscle control
- Exists on a continuum
Physiologically: simultaneous activity in widespread parts of brain
How does the RAS influence consciousness?
- part of reticular formation in brain stem
- involved in activating/arousing the cortex to the state of consciousness
- communication between ret. form. and cerebral cort.
- filters out unnecessary stimuli and provides enough to keep cerebral cortex alert and conscious
What is sleep?
State of changed consciousness or partial unconcsiousness from which one can be roused by stimulation
Less cerebral cortex activity, but monitoring of external environment continues to some extent
What are the two main types of sleep?
- Non rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
- Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (paradoxical sleep)
Identify and describe the characteristics of each of the stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Be sure to include mention of typical EEG patterns and general physiological characteristics in your descriptions.
Stage 1 - EEG = alpha waves interspersed with theta wages; transition:lie awake with eyes closed, thoughts drifting; vital signs normal; rouse immediatly w/stimulation
Stage 2 - EEG = more irregular, sleep spindles (short bursts of elec. activity) present; light sleep; easily aroused
Stage 3 - EEG = theta and delta appear, some sleep splindles; moderatly deep sleep; higher amplitude wabes; vital signs down; dreaming common; skeletal musc. relax; 20 min after start
Stage 4 - slow wave sleep EEG = slow large amp. delta (1-4 Hz); vitals low; nightmares; difficult to rouse; bed wetting; sleep walking; pos. change every 20 min; skeletal musc. relax
Describe the characteristics of rapid eye movement including mention of typical EEG pattern and general physiological characteristics in your description.
EEG = abrupt change 90 min into sleep; looks like awake pattern
- increase O consumption in brain (more than when awake); up body temp, HR, BP, resp; down GI activity
- Cerebral cortex active; skeletal muscles actively inhibited;most dreaming, vivid; eyes move back and forth fast; hardest to wake you up
Describe the pattern of NREM and REM sleep over one sleep period (ie during one night).
- Alternate
- Beg of night: descend through stages of NREM to REM (stage 4 periods get shorter as night goes on)
- REM every 90 min, lasting 5-10, but get longer; finally 30-50 min
- Total: 90-120 min of REM sleep out of 7 hrs; 20%; for infants it's 50%
Circadian rhythm
A rhythm that repeats every 24 H
Electroencephalogram
EEG
Record of electrical activity of neurons close to brain's surface
Patterns of activity are called brain waves
How many periods of REM sleep (on average) does an adult experience per night?
4-5?
What is the role of the hypothalamus and RAS relative to sleep and sleep-wake cycles?
- Circadian rhythm
- Hypothalamus responsible for timing of sleep cycle
- Biological clock located in suprachiasmatic nucleus (above optic chiasm)
- RAS mediates some sleep stages - lower intensity of input to cerebral cortex, but doesn't shut off during sleep
What is learning? Memory?
Learning - acquisition of new knowledge or skills through instruction or experience
Memory - ability to recall learned information
Identify the stages of memory and describe the characteristics of each.
Immediate/sensory - ongoing processing of current experiences; cerebral cortex = temp storage site; ability to recall events while they're happening; can't remember word you were saying; completion of actions
Short term (STM) - few seconds to minutes; limited (7-10 things); more information can be fit if data is grouped into segments (like phone #s)
Long term (LTM) - most stable; from days to years; unlimited capacity
Identify and describe the three main categories of long-term memory.
Declarative (fact) - explicit info; conscious thoughts and language ability, symbol manipulation
Procedural (skill) - less conscious; motor skills, habits and behaviors; retained for a long time; doesn't involve much language, so have trouble articulating it; riding a bike etc
Emotional - lymbic system; life or death rxns; evolutionary survival; right or flight; sympathetic nervous system; autonomic nervous system; moderate level of this memory helps other types of memory
Identify the major brain structures thought to be involved in each of the specific categories of LTM.
Declarative (fact) - Hippocampus (actual meaning) and amygdala (emotional context to memory) retention and recall processing; diencephalon; sensory/association areas in frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal loves; parts of prefrontal cortex
Procedural (skill) - prefrontal cortex (processing), corpus striatum (lentiform and caudate nuclei), amygdala (link it to emotional), cerebellum
Emotional - lymbic system; sympathetic and autonomic nervous systems
Which type of memory (STM or LTM) is associated with structural changes in the brain?
LTM:
Possibly neuronal RNA content altered; alterations in synapsis; dendritic spines change in shape; more NT released by presynaptic neurons; presynaptic terminals increase in # and size
Which type of memory (STM or LTM) is associated with electrochemical events only?
STM
Rather than structural changes
Identify and describe the structures and/or materials which protect the spinal cord.
Bone - vertebral column, ligaments, tendons, muscles etc
Meninges - series of membranes that surround and protect the CNS tissue
CSF - cerebrospinal fluid; cushons etc
What is the function of the meninges?
Surround and protect the CNS tissue
List the meninges and spaces in order (from superficial to deep).
- Dura mater - tough fibrous; extends to S2 vertebra; separated by epidural space (contains spinal n. blood vessels and CT) from periosteum
- Subdural space - filled w/interstitial fluid
- Arachnoid matter - avascular
- Subarachnoid space - CSF
- Pia mater - adheres to outer surface of cord; denticulate ligaments extend through subarachnoid space to either side
In what meningeal space does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulate?
Subarachnlid space - separates arachnoid and pia mater
Which of the meninges adheres to the exterior surface of the spinal cord?
Pia mater
What causes the cervical and lumbar enlargements?
Large numbers of neurons present to supply arms and legs, respectively
Cervical - C4-T1
Lumbar - T9-T12
Where are the cell bodies of motor neurons located?
Gray matter of cord
Anterior horns - skeletal muscle
Lateral horns - smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
What is located in the dorsal root ganglia?
In posterior horns
Interneurons
Cell bodies of interneurons are located in the dorsal root ganglion
In what segmental levels of the cord are the lateral horns located?
Thoracic and upper lumbar regions
Motor neurons that supply smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
Regulated by ANS
What is located in the lateral horns?
Motor neurons (the cell bodies) that supply smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
Regulated by ANS
Name and identify the location of teh four functional zones of gray matter (present on each side of the cord).
- Somatic sensory (SS) - most dorsal
- Visceral sensory (VS) - mid-dorsal
- Visceral motor (VM) - mid-ventral
- Somatic motor (SM) - most ventral
Describe the organization of the white matter of the cord.
- Each half organized in 3 columbs/funiculi - anterior, lateral, posterior columns
Each column has fasciculi - cam be ascending/sensory or descending/motor
Name the neurons which comprise the ascending/sensory pathways.
First order neurons - primary afferant; each ganglion cell is unipolar (axon branches in peripheral (input) and central process (collaterals synapse with 2nd order and carry info to CNS)
- 2nd order neurons - axons decussate along ascending pathways, impulses to thalamus (synapse w/3rd order) or cerebellum (end of pathway)
3rd order neurons - conduct impulses from thalamus to somatosensory cortex; contralateral thalamus receives impulse
4th order - only for complex processing
Where are the cell bodies of each type of neuron located?
1st order - the primary afferant neurons; located in ganglea (DRG or cranial nerve ganglia)
2nd order - dorsal horn of the spinal cord or in medullary nuclei
3rd order - found in thalamus
4th order - only for complex processing
Identify the nonspecific ascending pathways.
Anterior spinothalamic tract - crude touch, press, tickle, itch and pain to thalamus
Lateral spinothalamic tract - pain and temp to thalamus
Anterior and lateral decussate at level of cord entry, info to thalamus w/2nd order and to somatosensory cortex w/3rd order
Collaterals synapse w/nuclie in reticular formation - goes to multiple areas of cerebrum; crude sensation, immediate emotional rxn
Locate the first, second and third-order neurons of the spinothalamic tracts. Where do these tracts decussate?
decussate at/near level of cord entry
Second order - impulses to thalamic nucleus in contralateral hemisphere
3rd order - from thalamus to somatosensory cortex
What type or sensory information is carried by the anterior spinothalamic tract? by the lateral spinothalamic tract?
Anterior - crude touch, press, tickle, itch, pain to thalamus
Lateral - pain, temp sensations to thalamus
Identify the specific ascending pathways.
Leminiscal/dorsal column pathways
Includes 2 paired tracts in dorsal white column (fasciculus cuneatus for upper body and fasiculus gracilis for lower body)
Locate the first, second and third order neurons of the fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis. Where do these tracts decussate?
1st order - impulses to medulla, synapse in nucleus cuneatus or nucleus gracilus
2nd order - decussate in medulla, enter medial lemniscus on contralateral side or cord, go to thalamus
3rd order - signal to specific region of somatosensory cortex of cerebrum
Why are the pathways fasciculus cuneatus and gracilus often referred to as the lemniscal pathways?
The 2nd order neurons enter the medial lemniscus, and extend to the thalamus
What type of sensory information is carried by the fasciculi cuneatus? but the fasciculi gracilis?
- conscious proprioception, fine and discriminative touch, press and vibration
Cuneatus - upper body
Gracilis - lower body
Locate the first and second order neurons of the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts. Explain why these tracts carry sensory info from one side of the body to the ipsilateral side of the cerebellum.
1st order - synapse at level of entry to cord
2nd order - carry signal directly to cerebellum
There is either no decussation, in the posterior tract, or two decussations in the anterior tract
What type or sensory info is carried by the spinocerebellar tracts?
- info from proprioceptors in trunk and lower limbs
From joint capsules, muscle spindles and tendons
- For posture, ballance, coordination of skeletal muscles, smooth movement
- Unconcious level
Name the two neurons that comprise the somatic motor pathways. where are the cell bodies of each type of neuron located?
- Upper motor neurons - pyramidal cells of motor cortex and other neurons in subcortical motor nuclei (in brain stem/cerebellum
- Lower motor neurons (alpha motor neurons) - found in anterior horn or in cranial nerve nuclei of brain stem; axons extend through peripheral nerves to skeletal muscles
Identify and describe the general role each of the 4 components of the neural circuitry comprising the somatic motor pathways.
have no idea
but
cerebrum/cerbellum
Upper motor neurons (from cerebrum to spinal cord)
Lower/alpha motor neurons
Skeletal muscles
Identify and describe the direct (pyramidal) tracts, including location of upper and lower motor neurons of the tract and level at which decussation occurs.
Lateral corticospinal tracts - anterior horns; decussate in medullary pyramids; symapse with lower motor neurons; distal muscles involved in fine movements of extremities
Anterior cotricospinal tracts - decussate at level of exit from cord; control muscles of neck and part of trunk
Corticobulbar tracts - nuclei of CN's in brain stem; terminate in motor nuclei of 9 pairs of CNs (III-VII and IX-XII); lower motor neurons of these CNs control precise voluntary movements of muscles in face and neci (swallow, speech, vocal chords)
Most pyr fibers decussate in medulla, remainder decussate at spinal cord level where fibers synapse
What type of efferent info is carried by the lateral corticospinal tracts? by the anterior corticoapinal tracts? by the coricobulbar tracts?
Lateral - synapse with lower motor neurons; fine skilled movements of extremities
Anterior - muscles of neck and part of trunk
Corticobulbar - lower motor neurons of these CNs control precise voluntary movements of muscles in face and neck (speech, vocal, swallow)
all originate w/pyramidal neurons in primary motor cortex and parts of premotor area of frontal lobe
direct, b/c they descend w/o synapsing with spinal cord
Identify the 4 main indirect (extrapyramidal) tracts.
generally: brain stem motor nuclei and most motor pathways; complex, polysynaptic, many feedback loops; reverberating; both stimulate and inhibit lower motor neurons
Rubrospinal tract
Reticulospinal tracts (anterior, medial and posterior reticulospinal)
Tectospinal tract
Vestibulospinal tract
Tell where each of the indirect tracts originates and describe the general function of each.
Rubrospinal tract - from red nucleus of midbrain to anterior horn of cord; decussate just inferior to red nucleus; muscle tone, precise movements in distal limb muscles esp. flexors
Reticulospinal tracts (anterior, medial and posterior reticulospinal) - from reticular formation to anterior horns; both uncrossed and crossed fibers; muscle tone and various visceral motor functions
Tectospinal tract - from superior colliculus of midbrain to anterior horns; decussate in anterior horns; mediating movements of head/eyes in response to visual stimuli
Vestibulospinal tract - from vestibular nucleus in medulla to anterior horns; no decussation; muscle tone in ipsilateral limb and trunk muscles; balance in response to head and torso movements
Folia
leaflike structure of the cerebellum