Cell Tissue Organ Biology Exam 2

Front 1

Hypertrophy

Back 1

↑(inc.) size of cells

Front 2

Hyperplasia

Back 2

↑ (inc.) # of fully differentiated cells

∴ fully fxn cells, but more than usual

Front 3

Anaplasia

Back 3

loss of differentiated form and function

refers to degree of differentiation of cells

Front 4

Regeneration

Back 4

1:1 replacement by cells of same type

healthy, non-pathogenic

Front 5

Angioplasty

Back 5

scrapes off plaque and endothelium lining arterial walls

Front 6

Endothelium (blood)

Back 6

Only blood compatible surface in body

clotting occurs when blood contacts any other tissue type

Front 7

Restenosis

Back 7

from stenosis -- the abnormal narrowing of a vessel or tubular organ

ex. hyperplasia (excessive smooth muscle proliferation) after angioplasty re-obstructs the vessel, leaving a relatively small lumen through which blood can pass.

Front 8

Grave's Disease

Back 8

hyperplasia of thyroid, caused by autoimmune attack producing Ab which bind TSH receptor and turn in constitutively on

symp: protruding eyes, non-pitting edema, fatigue, weight loss w/ high appetite, weakness, tachycardia

treat via surgical removal, anti-thyroid drugs

Front 9

Metaplasia

Back 9

Replacement of 1 cell type with another

common in airway & reproductive tract (as a result of chronic environmental insults)

Front 10

Dysplasia

Back 10

expansion of immature cells at the expense of location / number of mature cells

last step before cancer

freq. large nuclei, much mitotic activity, pleomorphic, loss of orientation

Front 11

Pleiotropy

Back 11

1 gene is responsible for more than one phenotypic characteristic

Front 12

Neoplasia

Back 12

loss of growth control (remove growth signals and growth continues)

Front 13

Benign Neoplasia

Back 13

loss of proliferation control only

freq. stay as encapsulated tumors, however benign≠harmless

Front 14

Malignant Neoplasia

Back 14

cancer

loss of both proliferation & positional control (will invade other tissues and establish tumors there as well)

Front 15

Normal Cell Proliferation Roles

Back 15

new blood vessel formation
wound healing
liver regeneration
epithelial cell regrowth
lymphoid cell maintenance

Front 16

Pathological States -- Fibroblast Proliferation

Back 16

Fibroplasia
Neurofibromatosis
Psoriasis

Front 17

Pathological States -- Endothelial Cell Proliferation

Back 17

Diabetic Retinopathy
Hemangioma (blood vessel tumor)

Front 18

Pathological States -- Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation

Back 18

arteriosclerosis, restenosis, pulmonary hypertension
uterine fibroids
asthma
pyloric stenosis
megaureter

Front 19

Differentiation vs. Proliferation

Back 19

Cannot proliferate once differentiated (neurons, cardiac muscle)

Don't proliferate (but can) once differentiated (liver, EC)

High normal turnover/proliferation after differentiation (intestinal crypt cells, bone marrow cells)

Front 20

Shear Forces

Back 20

cells will proliferate on agar until a monolayer is formed

application of fresh medium pumped across cells stimulates further growth

Front 21

Shape Regulates Proliferation

Back 21

shape gives important input in proliferation decisions; each cell has optimal shape for division

Front 22

Size Matters for Proliferation

Back 22

cells must reach requisite size before division occurs

if continually cut before reaching threshold, will not divide.

Front 23

R-Point

Back 23

Cells need to make a decision to continue through cell cycle or to exit and enter quiescent state (Go)

*committed step -- last point cell is still sensitive to external environment

Front 24

Positive Cell Cycle Effectors

Back 24

peptide growth factors = hormones

Front 25

Negative Cell Cycle Effectors

Back 25

interferon
TGF-B
retinoids
heparin sulfates

Front 26

G1 Checkpoint

Back 26

Is cell big enough?
Is DNA damaged?
Is environment favorable?
Nutrition status OK?

Front 27

S Checkpoint

Back 27

Has the cell gone through mitosis since the last round of DNA replication?

Front 28

G2 Checkpoint

Back 28

Is all the DNA replicated?
Is the environment favorable?

Front 29

M checkpoint

Back 29

Is spindle formed properly?
Are all chromosomes aligned on the spindle?

Front 30

MPF

Back 30

Mitosis Promoting Factor

controls entry into mitosis (through oscillation of concentration and activity)
regulated by phosphorylation/dephos.

2 subunits: cyclin B & CDK1

Front 31

Go

Back 31

growth-arrested state

↓ prot. synth
↑ prot. degradation
↓ RNA synth
↓ # polyribosomes
↓ S6 Phos.
flatter shape

Front 32

R-point response delay

Back 32

regulated by labil prot. w/ 2h half-lives

long delay indicates presence of inhibitory signals that must be overcome before cell proceeds through cell cycle

Front 33

Cyclin-CDK connection

Back 33

monitoring mechanism in cell division

Reg. by multiple phosphorylation events (inhibitory > activating)

Phophatase cleavage of inhibitory P yields rapid activation

Front 34

Cyclin-CDK Partners

Back 34

G1: cyclin D --- CDK 4 / CDK 6

G1/S: cyclin E -- CDK2

S: cyclin A -- CDK2

M: cyclin B -- CDK1 (MPF)

Front 35

Why we need cell death?

Back 35

a) nec. for normal devlopment (ex. limb dev.)
b) protection against viral infection (ex. prevent viral replication)
c) immune sys. regulation
d) elimination of genetic damage (ex. pot. cancerous cells)
e) ↑ cell death assoc. w/ degenerative neurological diseases (ex. Parkinson's, Alzheimers)

Front 36

Immune Cell Death (Pathology)

Back 36

↑ cell death assoc. w/ SCID or AIDS

↓ cell death assoc. w/ autoimmune disease

Front 37

Types of Cell Death

Back 37

programmed vs. accidental

apoptosis: programmed -- "death on schedule"

necrosis: accidental; ex. ischemia

Front 38

Apoptosis

Back 38

cells do not degenerate randomly, but are broken into cell fragments, then phagocytosed by neighboring epithelial cells

*in normal and diseased tissue, can counterbalance mitosis

Front 39

Apoptosis (mech)

Back 39

cell shrinks, chromatin condenses against nuc. membrane, karyorhexis

cell sheds buds (blebs) including nuc. fragments

cell shrinks to single apoptotic body

mito, organelles unaffected
DNA cut into 185 bp fragments

rapid (30-60min)
no inflammatory response

Front 40

Karyorhexis

Back 40

breaking up of nucleus in apoptosis

chromatin has already condensed in curved profiles against nuclear membrane

Front 41

DNA Laddering

Back 41

cutting of DNA into 185 bp fragments

*represents size of a nucleosome unit

(can see "ladder" pattern when run on gel; necrosis shows a smear)

Front 42

Ischemic Cell Death

Back 42

begins w/ swelling of cells and organelles

non-specific DNA degradation

necrosis (lysis) 12-24 hours after death

large inflammatory response as cells are exposed to immune sys

Front 43

Apoptotic Regulators

Back 43

Fas/TNF receptor family

Capsases

Bcl-2 family members

Front 44

Fas L

Back 44

immunologically privileged sites block B & T cell access (eyes, scrotum/testes, brain)

if Fas R binds Fas L as immune cell tries to cross epithelial tissue, triggers apoptosis

Front 45

Capsase

Back 45

(Cytosolic Aspartate-Specific Cysteine Protease family)

zymogen activation cascade, eventually clips nuclear membrane and cytoskeletal proteins

regulated by bcl-2

*executioners

Front 46

ICE

Back 46

Interleukin Converting Enzyme

Front 47

null mutation caspase-3

Back 47

defective telencephalic (anterior forebrain) development

(cells don't die on schedule)

Front 48

deletion of caspase 1

Back 48

↓↓ reduction of Interleukin-1 (IL-1) prod.

Front 49

Bcl-2 Family

Back 49

overexpression confers resistance to apoptosis, prolonged B lymphocytes survival

deletion leads to massive B cell apoptosis and loss of thymus and spleen, kidney disease

deletion of pro-apoptotic members (Bad, Bcl-2s, Bax) → hyperplasia lymphocytes, oocytes, and neurons

Front 50

Pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 members

Back 50

Bad, Bax, Bak, Bik, Bid, Bcl-Xs

Front 51

Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 members

Back 51

Bcl-2, Bcl-W, McL-1, A1, Ced9, Bcl-XL, E1B 19k, Bhrf1, KSHV ORF16, Lmw5-hl

Front 52

Human Follicular Lymphoma

Back 52

Bcl-2 locus at t(14:18) translocation breakpoint

places Bcl-2 prot. just downstream of IgG (↑ expression locus)

leades to prolonged survival of B lymphocytes, oncogenic

Front 53

Mitochondria in Apoptosis

Back 53

death signals dephosphorylate Bad, which binds to BCL-Xs on mito. outer membrane

BCL-Xs forms channels, when activated, loss of fxn permeability control, Cytochrome C released to cyto.

Cytochrome C binds Apaf-1 in cyto, cleaves proenzyme capsase9

active capsase 9 accelarates cascade

Front 54

Apaf-1

Back 54

apoptotic protease-activating factor 1

binds cytosolic cytochrome C, cleaves pro-enzyme segments from capsase 9

Front 55

Early Embryonic Development

Back 55

days 1 → 17

trilayer (3 cell embryo)

Front 56

Blastomeres

Back 56

1st 7 days

formed from mitotic cell divisions, no change in size of embryo

Front 57

Morula

Back 57

formed at day 3

outer cells (trophoblast) → placenta
inner cells mass → embryo

*ICM cells also for amnion, yolk sac, parts of the placenta. These are the source of ES.

Front 58

Early Blastocyst

Back 58

days 3-7

filling of blastocoel → ↑ size, bursts out of zona pelucida ("zona hatching")

*ZP prevents adhearance to fallopian tube walls

Front 59

Late Blastocyst

Back 59

days 7-17

begins just before implantation, ends with gastrulation

Front 60

Early Cleavages

Back 60

begin in fallopian tube 24-30 hours after fertilization

inside ZP, prevents adherence to fallopian tube walls

48 hours: 8 cell stage (blastomeres)

Front 61

Embryology

Back 61

Embryonic Period (weeks 1-8)
Prenatal Period (weeks 9-38)

Front 62

Teratology

Back 62

study of abnormal development

birth defects
anomalies
congenital malformations

Front 63

Gametes

Back 63

specialized germ cells (♂ & ♀)

haploid (direct result of Meiosis)

Front 64

Gametogenesis

Back 64

formation of fully-developed gametes

begins at gonad differentiation in the embryo, ends at fertilization

Mitosis: Amplifies primordial germ cell lines
Meiosis: germ cells undergo meiosis to make gametes

Front 65

Mitosis

Back 65

produces all somatic cells
1 S phase -- creates exact copies of chromosome

1 M phase -- duplicated chromosomes attach to spindle, align, separate into 2 complete sets

*parent and daughter cells identical, diploid

Front 66

Meiosis

Back 66

only produces gametes
1 S phase

Interphase w/ genetic recombination, followed by 2 divisions

parents diploid, daughters haploid

Front 67

Spermatogenesis

Back 67

occurs in seminiferous tubules

*acrosome - specialized golgi
*mid-piece houses mitochondria (GTP → flagella)
*occurs throughout lifetime of male

Front 68

Spermatogonia

Back 68

dormant in seminiferous tubules until puberty

multiply by mitosis, mature into primary spermatocytes

Front 69

Secondary Spermatocytes

Back 69

products of Meiosis I of primary spermatocytes

Front 70

Spermatids

Back 70

4 haploid cells created after completion of Meiosis II

Front 71

Spermatozoa

Back 71

mature sperm developing from haploid spermatids

*acrosome is specialized glogi at tip of sperm
*mid-piece houses mitochondria to supply GTP as energy for flagella
*nucleus is highly condensed

Front 72

Epididymis

Back 72

long coiled duct on posterior border of testes

continues to ductus (vas) deferens

mature spermatozoa migrate here from seminiferous tubules, stay for storage

Front 73

Sertoli Cells

Back 73

line periphery of seminiferous tubules

support / nurture germ cells

Front 74

Leydig Cells

Back 74

make testosterone

Front 75

H-P-O axis

Back 75

Hypothalamus - Pituitary - Ovary

hormonal "chain of command"

Front 76

Oogenesis (before puberty)

Back 76

oogonia --> mature oocytes begins before birth, completed after puberty

oogonia proliferate via mitosis in untero

Front 77

Primary Oocytes

Back 77

develop from oogonia

store mRNA, prot, ribosomes for post-fertilization

**reason for maternal inheritance

Front 78

Follicular Epithelial Cells

Back 78

ovarian stromal cells form layer of cells surrounding each primary oocyte

Front 79

Zona Pellucida

Back 79

specialized extracellular glycoprotein matrix coat

tough cross-linked protein lamina surrounding oocyte

req. for species specific sperm recognition

Front 80

Cortical Granules

Back 80

placed near edges of oocyte

secretory granules

upon fertilization, dump enzymes into extracellular space to cross link ZP, create slow block to polyspermy

Front 81

Primordial Follicle

Back 81

ZP + single layer follicle cells surround primary oocyte

Front 82

Primary Oocyte Division

Back 82

suspended in early prophase I until puberty

Front 83

Primary Follicle

Back 83

Granulose Cells

formed from follicular epithelial cells as primary oocytes enlarge in puberty

*respond to pituitary gonadotropin hormones

Front 84

Ovulation

Back 84

initiated by FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

FSH → follicular release of estrogen

10-12 weeks for development from pre-ovulatory (Graafian) follicle

after puberty, one follicle / mo, one oocyte ovulated
MI comp. --> secondary oocyte, disgard polar body

Front 85

Secondary Ooctye

Back 85

created from primary oocyte just before ovulation

polar body degenerates

arrested in Metaphase II
(completes MII only if fertilized)

Front 86

Oocyte Chromosomal Damage

Back 86

at ovulation, oocytes are 12-55 years of age

* this means there has been plenty of time for environmental factors to damage the chromosomes --> birth defects

Front 87

Atresia

Back 87

enormous attrition due to apoptosis of oocytes

2000000 primary oocytes at birth, 400000 at adolescence, 400 ovulated

Front 88

GnRH

Back 88

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone

s: hypothalamus (brain)

t: anterior pituitary

a: synth. & secretion of FSH / LH

Front 89

FSH

Back 89

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

s: anterior pituitary

t: ovary

a: stim. ovarian follicle growth, differentiation, and steroidogenesis

Front 90

LH

Back 90

Luteinizing Hormone

s: anterior pituitary

t: ovary

a: stimulates ovulation, corpus luteum formation, and steroidogenesis

Front 91

Estrogens

Back 91

s: ovary / folllicle cells

t: uterus, vagina, oviduct, mammary glands

a: target growth and differentiation

Front 92

Progetins

Back 92

s: corpus luteum

t: uterus, vagina, oviduct, mammary glands

a: target growth and differentiation

Front 93

Down's Syndrome

Back 93

Caused by non-disjunction / translocation chromosome 21

Front 94

Angelman Syndrome

Back 94

Deletion Ch. 15

severe developmental delay
speech impairment (little use of words), mvmt/balance disorder

unique behavior, happy demeanor (freq. laughter, smiling, easily excitable, flapping hand mvmts.)

delayed head growth, microcephaly by age 2

seizures, onset <3 y

Front 95

Prader-Willi Syndrome

Back 95

Deletion Ch 15

developmental delay, poor muscle tone, short stature, small hands and feet
incomplete sexual development

*insatiable appetite

Front 96

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

Back 96

*blastomere biopsy

can remove 1 or 2 blastomeres from 8 cell stage; test for genetic abnomalities
remaining blastomeres will still form normal embryo / placenta

Front 97

Early Mitotic Non-disjunction / Translocation

Back 97

embryo will have 2 or more genetically unique cell lines

*mosaic

phenotypes less severe then total non-isjunction/translocation events

Front 98

Decidual Cells

Back 98

endometrial cells around implantation site

day 8-14, ↑ levels glycogen & lipids
develop distinctive polyhedral shape

nourish embryo, provide immunologically privileged status
{prod. prostaglandin E2, ┤T cell, NK cell activation, maternal rejection}

Front 99

Early Cleavage

Back 99

24-30h, first mitotic division

48h, 8 cell stage (blastomeres) w/ no change in overall size

*zygote still in ZP (prevents adherence to fallopian tube)

Front 100

Day 3

Back 100

Morula forms by compaction, mediated by cadherin

trophoblast --> placenta
inner cell mass (ICM) --> embryo

Front 101

Day 6

Back 101

Early Blastocyst attaches

blastocoel (fluid filled cavity) begins to form and increase in size

↑ size puts pressure on ZP, --> zona hatching

Front 102

Day 7

Back 102

Late Blastocyst, begins implantation

Front 103

Days 8-12

Back 103

Mid-Implantation

syncitiotrophoblasts invade endometrium to nourish embryo

embryo forms bilaminar disc (hypoblast & epiblast)

Front 104

Days 12-14

Back 104

Completion of Implantation

syncitiotrophoblast → hCG → C.L.

Front 105

hCG

Back 105

ad detectable levels < 10 days after fert.

ensures survival of CL (and ∴ progesterone production, essential to maintenance of pregnancy)

Front 106

Gastrulation

Back 106

2 layers become 3

begins in implantation

hypoblast delaminates (moves) and space is filled by rapid, directed movement of epiblast

epiblast forms: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm (3 primordial germ layers)

*takes 2-3 days, perhaps the most important step in development

Front 107

Spontaneous Abortion of Abnormal Embryos

Back 107

may appear as late / profuse menses
*33-50% rate (of all pregnancies)
most grossly abnormal

causes early abor:
chromosomal abnormalities (60%)
cleavage problems (25%)
progesterone insufficiency (15%)

*likelihood ↑ w/ ↑ maternal age

Front 108

Ectopic Pregnancy

Back 108

blastocyst implants outside of uterus

1/200 (highest in women >35)
95% implant in fallopian tubes (ampulla or isthmus) -- "tubal preg."

ab. pain, tenderness, bleeding, (sim. to appendicitis)
rarely carry to full term, high risk of maternal death

Front 109

Inhibition of Implantation

Back 109

large doses estrogen --| blastocyst implantation (Δ progesterone balance disrupts endometrium)
*"Plan B"

RU486 and other drugs work w/ sim. mech

Front 110

Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)

Back 110

cause chronic inflammation, interferes w/ implantation

Front 111

Infertility

Back 111

the inability to achieve pregnancy after one year of unprotected sex

*affect 8 million American couples, or ~12% of the reproductive age population

Front 112

Hysterosalpingography (HSG)

Back 112

dye injected into cervex; should flow through uterus and out of fallopian tubes

can locate blockages potentially preventing fertilization

Front 113

Causes of Infertility

Back 113

disruption of any steps between gametogenesis and implantation

♂ 40%
♀ anatomic: 35%
♀ hormonal: 15%
unexplained: 20%

Front 114

Ovulation Defects

Back 114

irregular ovulation caused by hypothalamic abnormalities (i.e. Δ GnRH release)

↓ FSH/LH

*stress & extreme athletic activity, eating disorders, hormonal imbalances

Front 115

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Back 115

apoptotic error → cyst formation

↑ LH : FSH
↑ androgen levels

... leads to chronic weight gain, excessive hair growth, irregular ovulation

Front 116

♀ Reproductive Tract Abnormalities

Back 116

anatomical barriers to fertilization / implantation

ex. endometriosis, Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID), tubal obstructions, fibroids

Front 117

Uterine Fibroids

Back 117

Leiomyomas

benign overgrowths of uterine smooth muscles, project into cavity

Front 118

Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser Syndrome

Back 118

complete absence of uterus

Front 119

Asherman's Syndrome

Back 119

excessive scar tissue in uterine cavity

*freq. occurs after surgeries such as D & C or myomectomy

Front 120

D & C

Back 120

dilation and curettage

scraping out of the uterus

used to remove fibroids (although they will regrow), can cause scarring

Front 121

Recurrent Pregnancy Loss

Back 121

3 or more consecutive miscarriages

*only counts "known" pregnancies

may be from a hormone imbalance, ex. failure to maintain progesterone levels

Front 122

♂ Factors Causing Infertility

Back 122

azoospermia -- no sperm

oligospermia -- low sperm counts

caused by testicular defects, hormonal abnormalities, high Temp

Front 123

Varicocele

Back 123

blown out vein in scrotum, bleed

↑T in scrotum, negatively affects sperm growth and development

Front 124

Infertility Treatment

Back 124

1) Diagnose Cause

2) Treat w/ ↓ expensive, ↓ invasive therapy appropriate

3) Progress until successful treatment found

Front 125

Order of Infertility Treatment

Back 125

Surgical correction of reproductive tract defects

1) oral drugs (clomiphene citrate)
2) clomiphene w/ intrauterine insemination (IUI)
3) injectable drugs (hMG, FSH) and IUI
4) IVF

Front 126

Clomiphene Citrrate

Back 126

+cheap, oral
--| estrogen receptors in hypothalamus

→ FSH / LH prod, stim follicle growth

one week after last dose, hypothalamus senses estrogen threshold for pituitary LH surge --> ovulation

Front 127

hMG

Human Menopausal Gonadotropins

Back 127

injection

req. follicle size monitoring (via ultrasound)
→ multiple dominant follicles, ↑ P (mult. births)

when mature follicles detected, ovulation triggered w/ hCG (mimics LH surge)
equal FSH/LH, derived from urine of postmenopausal women

*used: women w/ no luck w/ clomiphene c. & women w/ ↓ FSH / LH

Front 128

FSH

(Follicle Stimulation Hormone)

Back 128

subcutaneous injection

stim. ovaries to prod. mult. follicles and oocytes

*used: PCOS patients (high LH/ low FSH levels)

Front 129

GnRH

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone

Back 129

pump, releases GnRH @ 90 min. intervals ('mimic' hypothalamus)

*used: anovulatory b/c of abnormal FSH/LH release

Front 130

hCG

(Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

Back 130

one subcutaneous injection at end of treatment to induce ovulation (comes 36-72 h later)

*used: triggers ovulation

Front 131

IUI

(Intrauterine Insemination)

Back 131

*used: ↓ ♂ infert. fact., ♀ w/ cervical mucus abnormalities (wrong pH)

perf. w/ ovulatory induction (↑ efficacy)
24-36 hours after LH surge induced

*sperm washed (mimics capacitation)

Front 132

IVF

(In Vitro Fertilization)

Back 132

gonadotropins induce ovulation for egg retrieval (laproscopic proc. w/ ultrasound)

mature eggs incubated w/ washed sperm, early cleavages obs. w/in 2-3 days

normal embryos implanted into uterus

Front 133

ICSI

(Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection)

Back 133

"zona drilling"

*No membrane fusion
*No normal Ca++ wave

using pipet, sperm injected directly into cytoplasm of oocyte

Front 134

Embryo Transfer (IVF)

Back 134

2-3 days after retrieval, 1-4 best embryos transf. to uterus

cath. inserted through vagina, cervix, and into uterus

ultrasound helps placement of embryos in uterus

woman lays in bed for several hours, 4-6 hours later discharged

*progesterone given to max. chances of good uterine lining

Front 135

Homotypic Cell-Cell Interactions

Back 135

involve a single cell type

ex. formation of epithelial layers

Front 136

Heterotypic Cell-Cell Interactions

Back 136

involving 2 or more cell types

ex. mesenchymal-epithelial interactions

Front 137

Homophilic Molecular Interactions

Back 137

self-association

ex. Uvumorulin (mouse embryo compaction)

Front 138

Heterophilic Molecular Interactions

Back 138

involving 2 or more macromolecules

Front 139

Matrix Crossbridging

Back 139

cell surface receptors bind extracellular matrix mol. in multivalent manner

ex. basal lamina between epithelium and mesenchyme

Front 140

Dynamic Interactions

Back 140

making and breaking of contacts

ex. neural crest w/ fibronectin (migration)

Front 141

Stabilized adhesions

Back 141

redistribution of surface receptors following primary interactions

ex. neuromuscular jxn

Front 142

Tissue-Specific Adherence

Back 142

homotypic

dissociated cells adhere preferentially w/ cells of same tissue type

can mix cells of multiple types, will reassemble into tissue specific aggregates

Front 143

Mesenchymal-Epithelial Interactions

Back 143

heterotypic

* if mammary gland epithelia is combined w/ salivary mesenchyme, will appear to be a salivary gland, but will produce milk

development involves ingrowth of epithelial cells into underlying mesenchyme

mesenchyme : morphology
epithelium : fxn

Front 144

Compaction of the Early Mouse Embryo

Back 144

homophilic

blastomeres held together by ZP

Ca++ dependent adhesion at 8 cell stage

Ab against uvomorulin (a cadherin) --| compaction, blastomeres continue to divide, do not form blastocyst

Front 145

Binding of Metastatic Cells to Basement Membranes

Back 145

matrix cross-bridging

2` tumor as conseq. of metastasis

a. binding to basement membrane
b. secretion of degradation enzymes
c. movement into adjacent tissues

laminin binds itself, t. IV collagen, heparan sulfate proteoglycan, and entactin, *cell surface receptors

*metastatic cells ↑ binding to laminin-coated surf. & ↑# receptors

Ab against laminin --| metastases

Front 146

Interaction of Neural Crest Cells with Fibronectin

Back 146

dynamic

originate along dorsal border of neural tube
at closure, n. crest cells break loose from epithelium, migrate

--> give rise to many tissues (peripheral neurons, schwann cells, pigment cells, connective tissue)
*cells follow pthwys lined w/ large adhesive glycoprotein fibronectin

Ab against fibronectin interrupt interaction w/ crest cells, blocks migration

Front 147

Neuromuscular Junction

Back 147

stabilized

Front 148

EC

Back 148

endothelial cells

surround lumen in arterial walls -- only blood-compatible surface in body

Front 149

ECM

Back 149

extracellular matrix

underlies EC monolayer in vessel wall

Front 150

IEL

Back 150

internal elastic lamina

tough, fenestrated elastin-containing lamina

Front 151

Intima

Back 151

portion of vessel wall composed of EC and ECM

Front 152

Arteriosclerosis

Back 152

response to injury to the arterial wall (from hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipidemia, surgery, ...)

platelet aggregation followed by deposits of granular products & growth factors
--> SMC hyperplasia/proliferation

*may eventually occlude vessel

Front 153

Marfan's Syndrome

Back 153

elastin cross-linking defect (usually from defective fibrillin)
fibrillin forms "spring" connecting elastin fibers

constant pressure changes in large vessels causes progressive stretching out of wall --> aneurysm

Front 154

Pemphigus

Back 154

autoimmune

Ab to desmoglein (a cadherin)

blistering disease; desmosomes and hemidesmosomes in skin are destroyed

Front 155

Glansmann's thrombasthenia

Back 155

defective integrin

clotting disease (integrins essential for platelet aggregation)

freq. fatal by 2-3 years

Front 156

Metastatic Cancer

Back 156

fibronectin, laminin, MPPs

Front 157

Arteriosclerosis

Back 157

multiple-proteoglycans, CAMs, etc., ...

Front 158

Scurvy

Back 158

vitamin C def. --| cross-linking

collagen cross-linking defect

Front 159

Ehler-Danlos Syndrome

Back 159

collagen synthesis & fibril assembly

hyperflexibility & vascular weakness

Front 160

Menkes

Back 160

Cu def. / non fxn

--| cross linking w/ lysyl oxidase

Front 161

Alport Syndrome

Back 161

col. type IV def. (mutation)

inherited kidney failure

Front 162

Goodpasture Syndrome

Back 162

autoimmune

Ab attack type IV collagen

destroys basement membrane in lungs and kidneys

manage w/ corticosteroids / immunosuppressants

Front 163

Osteogenesis Imperfecta

Back 163

mut. type I collagen

*social issues -- can appear as abuse in infants presenting with broken bones

Front 164

Collagen Type I

Back 164

fibrilar (long, thin)

bone, skin, tendons, ligaments, internal organs

Front 165

Collagen Type II

Back 165

fibrilar (long, thin)

cartilage, invertebral disc, notochord, vitreous humor (eye)

Front 166

Collagen Type III

Back 166

fibrilar (long, thin)

skin, blood vessels, internal organs

Front 167

Collagen Type IV

Back 167

network forming, sheetlike

basal lamina / basement membrane

Front 168

Basal Lamina

Back 168

"basement membrane"

found underneath epithelial tissue, separates epithelium from connective tissue

Front 169

Proteoglycan Structure

Back 169

cushing, ↑ structural support {~hydration state}

*like a sponge for matrix

Front 170

Chondrodysplasia

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collagen def.

extremely flattened nose, oddly shaped legs, hip dysplasia (leg and knee problems), malformed fingers

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Fibronectin Structure

Back 171

between cell membrane & collagen

binds integrins

collagen binding site and cell binding site

Front 172

Carcinoma

Back 172

cancer of epithelial cells

must break contacts w/ laminins to metastasize

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Integrins

Back 173

everywhere!

fxn specific to cell types

can combine in any # of combinations
↑ variability
↑ specificity for specific integrin

Front 174

Cadherins

Back 174

regulate compaction

cells bind one another of same kind

"glue between epithelial cells"

Front 175

CCN5

Back 175

--| smooth muscle proliferation

Front 176

MMPs

Back 176

Matrix Metalloproteases

metal req. enzymes, imp. for angiogenesis

∴--| MMP, blocks tumor angiogenesis & growth

Front 177

Diabetic Retinopathy

Back 177

from unwanted angiogenesis

Front 178

Prenatal Period

Back 178

before birth

Front 179

Postnatal period

Back 179

after birth

Front 180

Infancy

Back 180

first year after birth

Front 181

Newborn / Neonatal

Back 181

first 4 weeks after birth

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Childhood

Back 182

13 mo. to puberty

primary deciduous teeth
active ossification

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Puberty

Back 183

♂ 13-16 y
♀ 12-15 y (onset of menarche)

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Adolescence

Back 184

11-19 y

earliest signs of puberty to attainment of physical, mental, and emotional maturity

Front 185

Adulthood

Back 185

begins at 18-21 y

full growth and maturity usually reached

ossification complete by 21-25 y

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Menstrual Phase

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days 1-5

shedding of lining

wall breaks off in pieces w/ 20-80 ml blood

*necrosis as a planned event

Front 187

Proliferative phase

Back 187

days 5-14

estrogenic phase; estrongen levels rise, stimulate re-growth of fxn layer

glands increase in number and length, spiral arteries elongate

coincides w/ follicles growth

Front 188

Secretory phase

Back 188

days 14-27

estrogen levels peak and fall
progesterone stays high

formation, fxn, growth of corpus luteum in ovary

epithelium secretes glycogen rich mucous fluid, endometrium thickens, spiral arteries coil, venous network forms lacunae

implantation on day 20

Front 189

Ischemic phase

Back 189

days 27-28 (if not fertilization)

estrogen / progesterone levels fall rapidly, fxn endometrium becomes ischemic

spiral arteries constrict, glandular secretion stops, fluid decreases, endometrium shrinks

necrosis of superficial tissues

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Ovarian Cycle

Back 190

GnRH made in neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus

secreted in rhythmic waves and carried by hypophyseal portal system to anterior pituitary

Front 191

Ovarian Cycle (2)

Back 191

ant. pit. releases FSH, stimulates 4-12 primordial follicles to develop

Front 192

Primary Follicle Development

Back 192

a) growth and differentiation of a primary oocyte
b) proliferation of follicle cells
c) formation of zona pellucda
d) development of the theca folliculi

Front 193

Dominant Follicle

Back 193

fastest growing follicle in stimulated group

becomes secondary follicle / primary oocyte and ultimately is ovulated as a secondary oocyte

Front 194

theca folliculi

Back 194

stroma cells adjacent to primary follices form a capsule

internal vascular/glandular layer: theca interna
capsule like outer layer: theca externa

promote angiogenesis
make follicular fluid, some estrogen, and androgens

Front 195

Antrum

Back 195

follicular fluid-filled region

when present, primary follicle becomes secondary follicle

surrounded by mass of cells called cumulus oophorus

Front 196

LH surge

Back 196

stimulates ovulation 12-24 later

elicited by rising estrogen levels reaching a threshold

Front 197

stigma

Back 197

visible cystic swelling on ovarian suface -- marks rapid growth of follicle

Front 198

Graafian follicle

Back 198

mature

Front 199

Corona Radiata

Back 199

one or more layers of follicle cells suoorounding ovulated secondary oocyte

Front 200

Corpus Luteum

Back 200

follicle walls and theca folliculi collapse to form glandular corpus luteum

secretes progesterone and some estrogen

degeneration prevented by hCG

Front 201

Progesterone

Back 201

causes endometrial glands to secrete glycogen-rich mucous fluid to prepare endometrium for implantation

Front 202

Corpus Albicans

Back 202

a small patch of white scar tissue left over from CL if no fertilization occurs

Front 203

Oocyte transport

Back 203

fimbriae and infundibulum at end of fallopian tube sweep secondary oocyte into tube

peristalsis & ciliar mvmt bring oocyte to ampulla

Front 204

Anovulation

Back 204

failure to ovulate

freq. caused by inadequate levels of gonadotropins

can treat w/ clomiphene citrate

Front 205

Sperm Production

Back 205

occurs throughout lifetime of ♂

Front 206

Sperm Counts

Back 206

normal 100 million / ml, >40% motile

infertile <10 million/ml, <20% motile

Front 207

Capacitation

Back 207

glycoprotein coat and seminal proteins are removed from acrosomal surface of sperm

activates sperm for acrosomal rxn

Front 208

ACE

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme

Back 208

in acrosome, req. to induce acrosomal rxn

Front 209

♂ Contraception

Back 209

Vasectomy

reversible 50% of the time

Front 210

Sperm Mvmt in ♀

Back 210

swim 2-3 mm / min

muscular contractions in ♀ reproductive tract stimulated by prostaglandins (*most of the mvmt)

Front 211

Fertilization

Back 211

occurs in ampulla of fallopian tube, take 24 hours

begins w/ penetration of zona pellucida

Front 212

ZP3

Back 212

primary CHO mol. rec. on oocyte by sperm

binding initiates acrosomal rxn

Front 213

Hyaluronidase

Back 213

from the acrosome disperses follicular cells surrounding oocyte by eating ECM (degrades hyaluronan)

Front 214

Zona Reaction

Back 214

sperm contacts oocyte membrane, cortical granules exocytose contents, cross link zona proteins

*slow block to polyspermy

Front 215

Membrane Fusion / Fertilization

Back 215

triggers completion of Meiosis II, release of second polar body

sperm brings centriole for mitotic spindle

pronuclei formed, membranes break down, chromosomes condense, begin metaphase

Front 216

Zygote

Back 216

unicellular embryo, 46 chromosomes (2n)

G prot, Ca++, IP3, prot kinases trigger activation of new zygotic genome

Front 217

Parthenogenesis

Back 217

embryonic development without sperm

artificial induction of oocyte cleavage possible in some animals, not humans

Front 218

Polyspermy

Back 218

several sperm fertilize oocyte

severe intrauterine growth retardation and developmental anomalies

not compatible w/ life

Front 219

Selective Reduction of Multiple Pregnancies

Back 219

presents ethical issues in IVF

mult. embryos ↑ mother's risk of complications

Front 220

Ethical Issues w/ Infertility Treatments

Back 220

Limited access due to high costs

unknown long term medical risks (ex. ICSI)

Are infertility treatments a health right or a privilege?

Front 221

Somatic cell

Back 221

cell of the body other than egg or sperm

Front 222

SCNT

(Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer)

Back 222

the transfer of a cell nucleus from a somatic cell into an egg from which the nulceus has been removed

Front 223

Stem Cells

Back 223

cells that have the ability to divide for indefinite periods in culture and to give rise to specialized cells

*self-renewing

Front 224

Totipotent

Back 224

unlimited capacity to specialize into any and all cell types or tissues

"omnipotent"

Front 225

Pluripotent

Back 225

capable of giving rise to most cells and tissues of an organism

Front 226

Multipotent

Back 226

capable of giving rise to several/many cell types

Front 227

Progenitor cells

Back 227

cells that are committed to differentiate

NOT self-renewing, (not stem cells)

Front 228

Clone

Back 228

an organism, colony, or group of organisms derived from a single organism or cell by asexual reproduction

*all have identical genetic make-ups

Front 229

Reproductive Cloning

Back 229

cloning to produce a pregnancy resulting in the birth of a baby

Front 230

Therapeutic Cloning

Back 230

cloning to produce embryonic stem cells for treatment of disease

Front 231

Properties of a good stem cell

Back 231

survive in liquid nitrogen freezing for years
survive and proliferate indefinitely in cell culture
maintain stable and normal DNA and chromosomes
differentiate predictably into many types of cells

Front 232

ES

(Embryonic Stem Cells)

Back 232

+ low cost, unlimited #, pathogen free, non-carcinogenic, reduced immune rejection
++ more plastic

- ethical issues!

Front 233

Adult Stem Cells

Back 233

+found in most tissues, isolated from live of cadaver tissues
++ few ethical concerns

- less plastic

Front 234

Umbilical Cord Blood Stem Cells

Back 234

+ fewer ethical concerns
+possibility of a matched set of stem cells for autotransplantation later in life

Front 235

Transgenic Animals

Back 235

substitute genetically modified cell into 8 cell embryo

modified trait will show up in some cells/tissues/organs

genetic crosses of those chimeras having alteration in germ-line will yield animals w/ genes for new trait in all cells

-also, inject modified DNA into male pronucleus of fertilized egg

Front 236

tPA

Back 236

tissue plasminogen activator

*clot buster*

can tie to mammary gland specific activator in goat, ∴ tPA rich in goat's milk, ... milk it and purify enzyme

Front 237

Rubella (German Measles)

Back 237

causes birth defects

used to map progression of development (stage of development at time of infection determines specific defects)

Front 238

Thalidomide

Back 238

used in leprosy treatments

powerful teratogen, many birth defects

also used to map developmental progression

Front 239

Burkitt's Lymphoma

Back 239

c-myc translocation

reveals mol. and mech. for pro- & anti-apoptotic events

Bcl-2 misregulation, anti-apoptotic signals, --> massive outgrowths

Front 240

Syndactyly

Back 240

lack of apoptosis

webbed fingers / toes

no apoptosis to differentiate structures

Front 241

Polydactyly

Back 241

wrong timing or wrong amount of apoptosis

make too many fingers or toes