Cell Cycle And Cell Division

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1. Interphase 2. M Phase

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2 main parts of cell cycle

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G1 phase

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Cell growth, protein and RNA synthesis, preparation for DNA synthesis

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S phase

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DNA synthesis or replication, centrosome duplication

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G2 phase

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Duplication of organelles, protein synthesis, preparation of cell division

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M phase

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Cells ceases growth and protein production; either be mitosis or meiosis

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Cytokinesis

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Cytoplasm of the original cell is divided and distributed to the 2 daughter cells, spindle fibers disappear, nucleolus reappears, nuclear membrane formation

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Cytokinesis in animal cells

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Through formation of cleavage furrow

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Cytokinesis in plant cells

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Emergence of cell plate

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Karyokinesis

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Division of nucleus

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Gap 0 phase

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Cells do not follow the cell cycle upon formation (e.g. mature heart cells and nerve cells); cells become inactive

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Control points during cell division

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Ensures that the daughter cells have no defects or errors

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Mitosis

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Daughter cells should be duplicates of their parent cells; defects or errors may result in formation of abnormal cells or cancer cells

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G1 checkpoint

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Checking all necessary conditions needed for cell division, “restriction point” since it determines if the cell is ready to proceed to cell division

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G2 checkpoint

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Assesses the proteins and energy reserves, checks if all chromosomes were replicated correctly with no damages; if DNA is fully replicated, the cell will proceed to M phase

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M checkpoint

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End of metaphase in M phase, verifies whether all chromosomes are attached to the right spindle fibers and are properly aligned along the metaphase plate prior to separation, ensures all cells have correct number of chromosomes or chromatids after cell division

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Prophase

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chromatin, which is made up of DNA and proteins, condenses and thickens to form visible duplicated chromosomes, chromosome is X-shaped, the nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear. Centrioles made up of microtubules migrate to opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers, also made of microtubules, start to form between the two centrioles.

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Metaphase

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spindle fibers attach to the centromere of the replicated chromosomes. chromatids are guided by the spindle fibers to the middle of the cell, also known as the cell’s equator

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Anaphase

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centromere splits apart and the chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers. The chromatids are pulled apart as a result of the shortening of the microtubules that make up the spindle fibers

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Telophase

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chromatids have reached the two opposite poles within the cell, chromosomes now begin to unwind and become less visible, chromatids are called a single, non-replicated chromosome

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Meiosis

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special type of cell division that occurs only in reproductive organs, produces reproductive cells called gametes

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Haploid

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cells that contain only one copy of each type of chromosome

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Reduction division

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first part of meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid

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22 autosomes and one sex chromosome

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Each human sperm or egg cell contains

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Autosomes

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are chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual

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Tetrad

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homologous pair, which is made up of four chromatids

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Alleles

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can be recessive or dominant, which can determine whether a trait is expressed or not.

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gametogenesis

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Process where the end result of meiosis is the production of gametes

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spermatogenesis

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process of male gamete production in animals

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oogenesis

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process of female gamete production in animals

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genetic recombination

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crossing over and random segregation work to shuffle the chromosomes and the genes they carry

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nondisjunction

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failure of chromosomes to separate properly which can occur during meiosis

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trisomy

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a gamete with an extra chromosome is fertilized by a normal gamete, all the cells that develop from the zygote will also have an extra chromosome

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Triploidy

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if a diploid gamete unites with a normal haploid gamete, the zygote will contain three sets of chromosomes

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polyploids

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Organisms that have more than two sets of chromosomes

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chromosome

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Tightly packed DNA molecule found in the nucleus

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chromatins

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Threads of nucleusomes, which are DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones

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G1 phase

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Chromosomes appear as single chromatids joined by centromeres

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Ploidy level

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Number of sets of chromosomes

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Diploid

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All body cells or somatic cells

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haploid

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Sex cells or gametes

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Autosomes/ body chromosomes Sex chromosomes

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Two types of chromosomes

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euploid

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Cells with complete sets of chromosomes

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Aneuploid

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Cells that have missing or excess chromosomes

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Homologous chromosomes

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Two copies of a particular chromosome

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karyotype

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An image that shows all of the specific individual’s chromosomes

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Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

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Have extra chromosome 21, mental impairment, stunted growth, umbilical hernia

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Turner syndrome (monosomy)

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Only have one x chromosome, webbed neck, swollen hands, short stature, low-set ears

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Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)

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Abnormalities, including intellectual disability, polydactyly, kidney defects

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Edward’s syndrome (trisomy 18)

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Kidney malformations, structural heart defects at birth, small head, intellectual disability

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DNA replication

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molecule that forms the genetic blueprint of the cell, is copied during interphase in a process known as

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Mutations

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a serious error can occur if the mitotic process is disrupted by this, it can be caused by various mutagens, such as toxic compounds, radiation, or viruses

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Klinefelter syndrome

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is where boys and men are born with an extra X chromosome