Catos Iii

Front 1

Interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system is coordinated through the

Back 1

hypothalamus

Front 2

Signaling mechanism where a neuron releases a chemical mediator into one of both of the vascular systems, which will affect a cell at some distance

Back 2

neuroendocrine

Front 3

Characteristics of endocrine glands

Back 3

ductless, very vascular (fenestrated and sinusoidal capillaries).

Front 4

Primary stromal fibers of endocrine glands are

Back 4

reticular fibers

Front 5

Fibers of endocrine gland capsule

Back 5

Dense, irregular type I collagen

Front 6

Endocrine gland parenchyma arrangement (4)

Back 6

1. Unicellular (diffuse neuroendocrine system)
2. Cords - cells line up in rows
3. Follicular pattern
4. Multipolar neurons

Front 7

Lumen of endocrine gland stores how many days worth of hormone precursors?

Back 7

30

Front 8

Steroid secreting glands store

Back 8

cholesterol (hormone precursor)

Front 9

Peptide hormones are 1) first produced as ... 2) then converted in the ER to ... 3) then packaged into secretory vesicles in the Golgi where it becomes

Back 9

1) preprohormone
2) prohormone
3) active hormone

Front 10

Where is angiotensin I (inactive) is converted to angiotensin II (active)?

Back 10

In the blood

Front 11

A change in the number or affinity of receptors is called

Back 11

down- or up-regulation

Front 12

Down-regulation may occur by (3)

Back 12

1) decreasing the synthesis of new receptors
2) increasing the degradation of existing receptors
3) inactivating receptors

Front 13

Up-regulation may occur by (3)

Back 13

1) increasing synthesis of new receptors
2) decreasing degradation of existing receptors
3) activating receptors

Front 14

If a response reverses the original stimulus, this is called

Back 14

a negative feedback system (loop)

Front 15

Three types of closed negative feedback loops

Back 15

1) Ultrashort (autocrine) - Cell A feeds back to Cell A
2) Short (most common) - Cell A produces a mediator which affects Cell B, which produces a feedback to Cell A
3) Long - Cell B produces a mediator which affects Cell C, which in turn feeds back to both cell A and cell B

Front 16

Tyrosine derivatives are

Back 16

epinephrine & norepinephrine - adrenal medulla

T3 & T4 - Thyroid gland

Front 17

Derivatives of tryptophan

Back 17

melatonin (pineal gland), and serotonin

Front 18

Small peptides

Back 18

ADH and oxytocin (posterior pituitary)
ANP (heart atria)

Front 19

Small proteins

Back 19

glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide - pancreas

All anterior pituitary hormones - anterior pituitary

PTH - parathyroid glands

Front 20

Steriods

Back 20

aldosterone and cortisol - adrenal cortex

estrogen and progesterone - ovaries

testosterone - testes

Front 21

Eicosanoids

Back 21

prostaglandins and leukotrienes - all cells except red blood cells

Front 22

Gas

Back 22

nitric oxide - endothelial cells lining blood vessels

Front 23

Hormones become permanently inactive ...

Back 23

in their target tissue

Front 24

The actions of some hormones on target cells require a simultaneous or recent exposure to a second hormone

Back 24

permissive effect

Front 25

When the effect of two hormones acting together is greater or more extensive than the effect of each hormone acting alone, the two hormones are said to have a

Back 25

synergistic effect

Front 26

When one hormone opposes the actions of another hormone, the two hormones are said to have

Back 26

antagonistic effects

Front 27

Endocrine disorders can arise from (2)

Back 27

1) hyperfunction or hypofunction of endocrine organs (most disorders)
2) excessive or inadequate responsiveness to target cells to hormones that are produced

Front 28

The hypophysis (pituitary gland) has two major divisions

Back 28

1) anterior adenohypophysis
2) posterior neurohypophysis

Front 29

Neurohypophysis is derived from

Back 29

neuroectoderm

Front 30

Neurohypophysis have 2 parts

Back 30

1) Pars nervosa (posterior, or neural, lobe)
2) Infundibulum = Infundibular stem and median eminence

Front 31

Adenohyphosis is derived from

Back 31

epithelial tissue

Front 32

Adenohypophysis is made up of three parts

Back 32

1) Pars distalis (anterior lobe)
2) Pars intermedia - absent in adults
3) Pars tuberalis

Front 33

The anterior and posterior pituitary lies in a bony fossa in the sphenoid bone behind the optic chiasm called the

Back 33

sella turcica

Front 34

Extensions of the fibro-elastic capsule of dura mater that surrounds the pituitary gland consist almost entirely of

Back 34

reticular fibers

Front 35

The ... consistutes about three-fourths of the pituitary.

Back 35

pars distalis

Front 36

The parenchyma is arranged in the anastomosing cord pattern and is lined up with

Back 36

sinusoidal capillaries

Front 37

The two main parenchymal cell types in the pars distalis are

Back 37

chromophobes and chromophils

Front 38

4 characteristics of chromophobes

Back 38

1) smaller than chromophils
2) lack secretory granules so cytoplasm does not stain
3) considered to be degranulated chromophils
4) cells tend to be located in clusters away from the capillaries

Front 39

3 characteristics of chromophils

Back 39

1) tend to lie at the surface of the cell cords, next to capillaries
2) have granules which stain intensely
3) hormone-secreting cells of the adenohypophysis

Front 40

2 types of chromophils

Back 40

1) acidophils (35% of all cells in pars distalis) - produce growth hormone and prolactin
2) basophils (15% of all cells in pars distalis) - stain with basic dyes and PAS+. Produce FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH.

Front 41

The primary and secondary capillary plexuses in the hypophyseal portal system are made up of

Back 41

sinusoidal capillaries

Front 42

All blood in the pars distalis pass through

Back 42

the hypophyseal portal system

Front 43

Purpose of the hypophyseal portal system

Back 43

transport hormones from hypothalamus to the adenohypophysis

Front 44

Flow of blood through hypophyseal portal system

Back 44

Superior hypophyseal artery->primary capillary plexus->portal veins->secondary capillary plexus

Front 45

The hypothalamus contains short neurosecretory neurons that

Back 45

release small peptide products into the primary capillary plexus, which get to the pars distalis via the hypophyseal portal system and control hormone release from acidophils and basophils. Controlled by negative feedback and CNS input.

Front 46

Two types of small peptide hormones synthesized in the neuron cell bodies in the hypothalamic nuclei

Back 46

1) Releasing hormones (4)
2) Inhibiting hormones (2)

Front 47

Releasing hormones are (4)

Back 47

1) GnRH - stimulates gonadotrophs to release FSH and LH
2) CRH - stimulates corticotrophs to release ACTH
3) TRH - stimulates thyrotrophs to release TSH
4) GHRH (somatotropin) - stimulates somatotrophs to release GH

Front 48

Inhibiting hormones (2)

Back 48

1) Somatostatin (GHIH) - inhibits growth hormone release from somatotrophs
2) Dopamine (PIH) - inhibits prolactin release from mammotrophs

Front 49

An ill-defined region consisting of a thin layer of cells and colloid cysts (Rathke's cysts) next to the neural lobe. Atrophies in adults.

Back 49

Pars Intermedia

Front 50

Ventral down-growth of the hypothalamus and is made up of nervois tissue

Back 50

posterior pituitary = neurohypophysis

Front 51

Neurohypophysis is divided into (3)

Back 51

1) medial eminence
2) infundibulum
3) pars nervosa

Front 52

Cell bodies for these modified multipolar neurons are located in the

Back 52

paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus

Front 53

Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract consists of

Back 53

unmyelinated axons of the neurohypophysis.

Front 54

Herring bodies are 1)... and 2) can contain ...

Back 54

1) large granule-filled dilations along the length of axons or the pars nervosa as well as at their termini
2) ADH and oxytocin

Front 55

Somatostatin works through what type of G protein receptor?

Back 55

Gi

Front 56

Oxytocin and ADH are what type of hormones?

Back 56

Peptide - 9 amino acids. Each differ in only 2 amino acids.

Front 57

Neurophysin I is packaged with 1) ... and neurophysin II is packaged with 2) ... Both also packaged with 3)...

Back 57

1) oxytocin
2) ADH
3) ATP

Front 58

Pituicytes are

Back 58

highly branched astrocytes whose processes surround and support the axons of the pars nervosa (occupy about 25% of the volume)

Front 59

Synthesized mainly by cells of the paraventricuar nucleus, stimulates milk ejection by the mammary glands, increased by increased suckling, stimulates uterine smooth muscle contraction during copulation and childbirth

Back 59

oxytocin

Front 60

synthesized mainly by the cells in the supraoptic nucleus, stimulates water resorption by the renal medullary collecting ducts

Back 60

arginine vasopressin (AVP) = antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Front 61

2 most common types and causes of diabetes insipidus?

Back 61

1) Central diabetes insipidus caused by ADH deficiency
2) Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus caused by an insensitivity of the kidneys to ADH.

Front 62

Glycoprotein hormones (stain with PAS) release from the pars distalis

Back 62

TSH, FSH(female), FSH(male), LH(female), LH(male)

Front 63

Source and target of TSH

Back 63

S: thyrotroph (basophil)
T: follicular cells of thyroid

Front 64

Source and target of FSH (female)

Back 64

S: gonadotroph (basophil)
T: follicular cells of ovary

Front 65

Source and target of FSH (male)

Back 65

S: gonadotroph (basophil)
T: Sertoli cells of testis

Front 66

Source and target of LH (female)

Back 66

S: gonadotroph (basophil)
T: Thecal, follicular, and luteal cells of ovary

Front 67

Source and target of FSH (male)

Back 67

S: gonadotroph (basophil)
T: Leydig cells of testis

Front 68

Principle actions of TSH

Back 68

Promotes thyroid growthl stimulates synthesis and liberation of T4 and T3 hormones; fatty acid release from fat cells

Front 69

Principle actions of FSH (female)

Back 69

Stimulates development and maturation of secondary ovarian follicles and their secretion of 17-beta estradiol

Front 70

Principle actions of FSH (male)

Back 70

Stimulates Sertoli cells to produce androgen binding protein

Front 71

Principle actions of LH (female)

Back 71

Elicits ovulation of Graafian follicle; promotes development of corpus luteum and progesterone secretion

Front 72

Principle actions of LH (male)

Back 72

Helps maintain Leydig cells of testis and stimulates their secretion of testosterone

Front 73

Disorders of TSH

Back 73

(+) Hyperthyroidism
(-) Hypothyroidism

Front 74

DNES is also referred to as

Back 74

APUD

Front 75

Small amount of RER, a supranuclear Golgi complex, and an accumulation of 100 to 400 nm secretory granules in their bases are characteristics of

Back 75

polypeptide-secreting cells

Front 76

APUD cells characteristically concentrate what in their cytoplasm?

Back 76

important bioactive amines such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

Front 77

Most APID cells are unicellular glands scattered among other epithelial cells, derived from

Back 77

neural crest

Front 78

True or False. Some DNES polypeptides have paracrine effects while other enter the bloodstream and have endocrine effects

Back 78

True

Front 79

Large populations of cells that secrete hormone-like substances, located in the enteric canal are

Back 79

enteroendocrone cells

Front 80

Three major digestive hormones secreted into the blood by enteroendocrine cells

Back 80

1) Gastrin - promotes secretion of gastric juice, increases gastric motility, and promotes growth of gastric mucosa
2) Secretin - stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile that are rich in HCO3-.
3) Cholecystokinin (CCK) - stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice rich in digestive enzymes, causes ejection of bile from the gallbladder and opening of the sphincter of Oddi, and induces satiety.

Front 81

Other gut-hormones (6)

Back 81

1-3) motilin, substance P, bombesin - stimulate motility of intestines
4) Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) - stimulates secretion of ions and water by the intestines and inhibits gastric acid secretion
5) gastrin-releasing peptide - stimulates release of gastrin
6) somatostatin - inhibits gastrin release

Front 82

Thyroid follicles are the main structural and function units of the thyroid gland and are made up of two main cell types

Back 82

Follicular and parafollicular cells.

Front 83

Thyroid gland is notable for its storage of reserve secretion called the

Back 83

semifluid colloid which fills the lumen of the follicle. Stains acidophilic, consists mainly of the glycoprotein thyroglobulin.

Front 84

True or False. Taller follicular cells are more active.

Back 84

True

Front 85

Function activity of follicular cells is stimulated by

Back 85

TSH (a tropic hormone) from the anterior pituitary and by sympathetic nerves

Front 86

3 factors can cause increased TSH

Back 86

1) low environmental temperatures
2) puberty
3) pregnancy

Front 87

2 factors can cause decreased TSH

Back 87

1) emotional stress
2) systemic stress such as trauma, heat, hemorrhage

Front 88

True or false. The production of thyroid hormones by the follicular cells involves an exocrine and endocrine part.

Back 88

True

Front 89

Thyroglobulin is produced from

Back 89

amino acids entering the follicular cells (based on tyrosine).

Front 90

Iodide enters the cell from vasculature via

Back 90

iodide pump in the cell's basal plasma membrane. Iodide is oxidized by peroxidase and then transferred to the cell's apex. TSH also stimulates iodide uptake.

Front 91

Iodination of tyrosine residues in the thyroglobulin occurs where?

Back 91

at the microvillus-colloid interface

Front 92

TSH causes

Back 92

cells to pick up iodinated thyroglobulin->endosomes fuse with lysosomes->break down iodothyroglobulin into T3(10% but more active) and T4 (90%). 90% of T3 and T4 are bound with proteins in plasma. 1/2 is taken up in 6 days.

Front 93

T3 and T4 act to

Back 93

increase basal metabolic rate, promote cell growth, increase heart rate, raise body temperature, and generally enhance all energy-requiring cell functions.

Front 94

Sequential steps of thyroid hormone synthesis (6)

Back 94

1) synthesis and secretion of thyroglobulin
2) uptake and concentration of iodide from the blood, oxidation to iodine, and release into the colloid
3) iodination of thyroglobulin in the colloid
4) formation of T3 and T4 hormones in the colloid by oxidative coupling reactions
5) resorption of colloid by receptor-mediated endocytosis
6) release of T4 and T3 from the cell into the circulation

Front 95

Parafollicular cells are derived from

Back 95

neural crest

Front 96

Parafollicular cells are

Back 96

large, pale-staining cells which lie singly or in clusters between the follicular cells and their basal lamina; they do not reach the lumen of the follicle. 2-3 times larger than follicular cells, but only account for about 0.1% of the epithelium.

Neural crest derivatives and are APUD cells

Front 97

Parafollicular cells secrete

Back 97

calcitonin (peptide hormone) in response to high blood calcium.

Front 98

Calcitonin inhibits

Back 98

bone resorption by inhibiting osteoclasts, thereby lowering blood calcium. Negligible physiologic effect under normal conditions in humans.

Front 99

3rd pharyngeal pouch becomes 1) ... and 4th pharyngeal pouch becomes 2) ...

Back 99

1) inferior parathyroid glands
2) superior parathyroid glands

Front 100

Broad, irregular ... channel the parenchymal cells of the parathyroids

Back 100

fenestrated capillaries

Front 101

Most abundant parenchymal cell in the parathyroids

Back 101

chief cell, arranged in cords. Pale-staining cytoplasm, vesicular nuclei.

Front 102

Chief cells secrete

Back 102

parathyroid hormone (peptide hormone) - increases blood calcium

Front 103

Parathyroid hormone acts at three locations

Back 103

1) bone - PTH increases bone resorption
2) kidneys - PTH increases phosphate excretion and calcium reabsorption and causes activation of a vitamin D precursor
3) Intestines - PTH causes increased absorption of calcium by the intestinal mucosa.

Front 104

These cells are larger and less numerous than chief cells. Very acidophilic due to large amounts of mitochondria, lack secretory granules. Nucleus is small and darkly staining.

Back 104

oxyphil cells - rare before puberty, increase in number in early adulthood

Front 105

Tetany

Back 105

hyperexcitability and spastic contraction of skeletal muscle

Front 106

Removal of parathyroid glands cause

Back 106

hypocalcemia, increased excitability of nervous tissue, including paresthesia and attacks of tetany or epilepsy. Administer PTH to correct.

Front 107

Pyramid-shaped gland which sits on the right kidney

Back 107

Right adrenal gland

Front 108

Crescent-shaped gland that lies along the medial border of the left kidney from the hilus to the superior pole

Back 108

Left adrenal gland

Front 109

True or False. The adrenal glands are retroperitoneal, located behind the peritoneum and is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule containing large amounts of adipose tissue.

Back 109

True

Front 110

2 divisions of the adrenal glands

Back 110

1) cortex - from mesoderm
2) medulla - from neural crest

Front 111

The accounts for 80-90% of the adrenal gland

Back 111

Cortex

Front 112

Adrenal cortex secretes what three steriod hormones (derived from cholesterol)?

Back 112

1) mineralocorticoids
2) glucocorticoids
3) androgens

Front 113

Adrenal cortex is subdivided into three concentric layers

Back 113

1) Zona glomerulosa (13-15%)
2) Zona fasciculata (78-80%)
3) Zona reticularis (7%)

Front 114

This layer of the adrenal cortex has cells arranged in clusters (some lipid droplets), and secrets mineralocorticoids (eg aldosterone)

Back 114

Zona glomerulosa (13-15%)

Front 115

Synthesis of mineralocorticoids is stimulated mainly by

Back 115

angiotensin II

Front 116

Mineralocorticoids function in

Back 116

osmotic balance and blood pressure regulation by affecting the function of the renal tubules.

Front 117

Dehydration or sodium deficiency ultimately causes the kidney to release

Back 117

renin

Front 118

Renin catalyzes

Back 118

conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (inactive)

Front 119

Angiotensin I (inactive) is converted to angiotensin II (active) by

Back 119

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).

Front 120

ACE is released by

Back 120

pulmonary capillary endothelial cells

Front 121

Angiotensin II acts on the

Back 121

zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, which counteracts dehydration.

Front 122

True or False. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor.

Back 122

True

Front 123

True or False. ANP inhibits aldosterone release from the zona glomerulosa.

Back 123

True

Front 124

This part of the adrenal cortex consists of cells arranged in cords or plates with sinusoidal capillaries running between them (many large lipid droplets in their cytoplasm).

Back 124

Zona Fasciculata (78-80%). Cells called spongiocytes.

Front 125

This portion of the adrenal cortex has cells which are irregularly arranged meshwork of cuboidal cells (fewer lipid droplets than spongiocytes). Produces androgens (dehydroepiandrosterone[DHEA]) and some androsterenedione. Both hormones are weak masculinizing hormones with negligible effects under normal conditions.

Back 125

Zona reticularis (7%). Overproduction of these androgens in women can lead to masculinization.

Front 126

The zona fasciculata and zona reticularis both produce

Back 126

glucocorticoids (eg cortisol and corticosterone)

Front 127

ACTH from the anterior pituitary stimulates

Back 127

the zona fasciculata and zona reticularis to secrete glucocorticoids, which raise blood glucose.

Front 128

This portion of the adrenal glands is nonessential for life but is an important regulator of stress. It is the central portion of the gland and is completely invested by the cortex.

Back 128

Adrenal medula

Front 129

The adrenal medulla contains two major cell types

Back 129

1) chromaffin cells
2) ganglion cells

Front 130

The main parenchymal cells of the adrenal medulla are the

Back 130

chromaffin cells

Front 131

Chromaffin cells contain granules that stain intensely with chromaffin salts which indicate

Back 131

that the cells contain catecholamines

Front 132

These cells are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons which have lost their axons and dendrites, and have an epithelioid appearance

Back 132

Chromaffin cells

Front 133

These cells are part of the DNES and migrate from the celiac ganglion

Back 133

chromaffin cells

Front 134

These cells are innervated by preganglionic sympathetic fibers, use ACh as the neurotransmitter

Back 134

chromaffin cells

Front 135

Chromaffin cells make 1) 85% ... and 2) 15% ...

Back 135

1) epinephrine
2) norepinephrine

Front 136

Effects of epinephrine

Back 136

1) increases blood glucose
2) increases alertness
3) increases cardiac output
4) increases heart rate

In preparation for fight-or-flight, plasma levels may increases as much as 300 times.

Front 137

Epinephrine is stored in

Back 137

clear granules (characteristic of cells producing epinephrine)

Front 138

Effects of norepinephrine

Back 138

1) increases blood pressure by vasoconstriction

Stored in dense-core granules (characteristic of cells producing norepinephrine)

Front 139

These cells of the adrenal medulla exhibit typical morphologic characteristics of autonomic ganglion cells, and are scattered throughout the connective tissue and are vasomotor

Back 139

ganglion cells

Front 140

These (2) blood supplies to the adrenal glands run between the capsule and the medulla and drain into the medullary veins

Back 140

sinusoidal capillaries and cortical arterioles

Front 141

This enzyme converts norepinephrine to epinephrine, is activated by cortical steroids

Back 141

Phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase (PNMT)

Front 142

Chromaffin cells supplied by the sinusoidal capillaries will receive blood with high levels of cortical steroids and therefore will produce

Back 142

epinephrine (most of the adrenal medulla product)

Front 143

Chromaffin cells supplied by the medullary arterioles will receive very little cortical steroids and will therefore produce

Back 143

norepinephrine

Front 144

Stress, provoked by psychological, environmental, or physiologic stressor, leads to throughts and emotions that influence both the CNS and the immune system, activating a bidirectional circuit between the two, and occurs via the

Back 144

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This initiates a cascade of reactions throughout the individual

Front 145

This is produced by the hypothalamus, stimulates the synthesis and processing of proopiomelanocortin, with resulting release of proopiomelanocortin peptides that include ACTH from the anterior pituitary.

Back 145

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

Front 146

ACTH binds to the melanocortin-2 receptor in the adrenal gland and stimulates

Back 146

cholesterol-derived synthesis of adrenal steroid hormones

Front 147

Glucocorticoids released into the systemic circulation exert negative feedback inhibition of

Back 147

CRF and ACTH release from the hypothalamus and pituitary, respectively.

Front 148

Major stress hormones are

Back 148

Epinephrine, norepinephine, and corticosteroids

Front 149

Prolonged duration and increased magnitude of activation of the neuroendocrine response can lead to

Back 149

erosion of lean body mass and tissue injury

Front 150

Mineralocorticoids control

Back 150

water and electrolyte content of the body fluids

Front 151

These mobilize and increase production of glycose so that it is available as an immediate energy source

Back 151

Glucocorticoids

Front 152

Catecholamines stimulate

Back 152

the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and the general metabolic activity of the body. They also assist the glycocorticoids in raising the blood glucose level and assist the sympathetic nervous system.

Front 153

True or False. Elevated corticosteroid have profound immunosuppresive effects.

Back 153

True

Front 154

The physiolocal role of the fetal zone of the adrenals in fetal life is to

Back 154

synthesize estrogen precursors, which are converted in the placenta to estrogens.

Front 155

Islets of Langerhans for part of the DNES and derived from

Back 155

endoderm

Front 156

Four main types of cells compose the parenchyma of each islet

Back 156

1) beta cells
2) alpha cells
3) delta cells
4) F, or pancreatic peptide (PP), cells.

Front 157

Islets of Langerhans: Beta cells

Back 157

Scattered throughout the islets, but concentrated in the center (70% of total cells). Produce insulin. Malfunction causes diabetes mellitus

Front 158

Islets of Langerhans: Alpha cells

Back 158

located mostly along the periphery (15-20% of total islets). Produce glucagon which acts mainly on hepatocytes.

Front 159

Islets of Langerhans: Delta cells

Back 159

produce somatostatin (made in many places, works through Gi) which inhibits alpha and beta cells. Located along periphery (5-10% of total islet)

Front 160

Islets of Langerhans: F (PP) cells

Back 160

produce pancreatic polypeptide, which inhibits pancreatic exocrine secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate. Located mostly along the periphery (1% of total islet)

Front 161

Exocrine product of follicular cells

Back 161

thyroglobulin

Front 162

Endocrine product of follicular cells

Back 162

T3 and T4

Front 163

Secretions of this endocrine gland are influenced by light and dark periods of the day

Back 163

pineal gland

Front 164

Interstitium of the pineal gland contains calcified concretions known as

Back 164

corpora arenacea (brain sand) - seen on x-ray. Composed primarily of calcium carbonates and phosphates within an organic matrix.

Front 165

Two types of parenchyma cells in the pineal gland

Back 165

1) pinealocytes - pale-staining, lobulated nuclei.
2) astrocytes - occur in the perivascular areas and between the clusters of pinealocytes. Elongated nuclei and stain more deeply than pinealocytes.

Front 166

Pinealocytes produce

Back 166

serotonin during the day and melatonin at night.

Front 167

Circadian rhythms are controlled by the periodic release of

Back 167

norepinephrine from postganglionic sympathetic fibers, which in turn is controlled by light perceived by the retina.

Front 168

The pineal contains what enzyme which has a role in the synthesis of melatinin?

Back 168

hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT)

Front 169

Melatonin is primarily controlled via the

Back 169

hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)

Front 170

During the day, impulses from the SCN

Back 170

suppress the synthesis of melatonin from seratonin.

Front 171

True or False. Practically no storage of melatonin takes place and therefore, secretion occurs at the time of synthesis.

Back 171

True

Front 172

Considered to be the "master gland"

Back 172

pineal gland

Front 173

Thyroid gland hormones

Back 173

T4 and T3 (follicular cells), Calcitonin (parafollicular cells)

Front 174

Parathyroid gland hormone

Back 174

PTH (chief cells)

Front 175

Adrenal cortex hormones

Back 175

Mineralocorticoids(aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone) (cells of zona glomerulosa)
Glycocorticoids (cortisol and corticosterone)(cells of zona fasciculata and zona reticularis)
Gonadocorticoids (dehydroepiandrosterone)(cells of zona reticularis)

Front 176

Hormones or adrenal medulla

Back 176

epinephrine and norepinephrine (chromaffin cells)

Front 177

Hormones or Pancreatic Islets of Langerhans

Back 177

glucagon (alpha cells)
insulin (beta cells)
somatostatin (delta cells)
pancreatic polypeptide (PP, or F cells)

Front 178

Hormones of the pineal gland

Back 178

Melatonin (at night) (pinealocytes)
Seratonon (at day) (pinealocytes)

Front 179

Target cells of calcitonin

Back 179

osteoclasts, epithelial cells of kidney tubules

Front 180

Target cells of PTH

Back 180

osteoblasts, small intestine, PCT of kidneys

Front 181

Target cells of aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone

Back 181

DCT epithelial cells, gastric mucosa, salivary/sweat ducts

Front 182

Target cells of somatostatin

Back 182

pancreatic endocrine cells

Front 183

Target cells of pancreatic polypeptide

Back 183

pancreatic exocrine cells

Front 184

Target cells of melatonin and seratonin

Back 184

hypothalamus neurosecretory cells, pitutary gonadotrophs, gonads

Front 185

Action of T4, and T3

Back 185

(+) BMR, heat production, O2 comsumption, protein synthesis, glucose/fatty acid use, cholesterol excretion, skeletal growth, nervous system development

Front 186

Action of calcitonin

Back 186

negligible under normal conditions, (-) blood calcium/phosphates, bone resorption by osteoclasts, calcium/phosphate reabsorption by kidneys

Front 187

Action of PTH

Back 187

(+) blood calcium/magnesium, bone resorption by osteoclasts, calcium reabsorption by kidneys/gut, phosphate excretion by kidneys, calcitrol (Vitamin D) formation, (-) blood phosphate

Front 188

Action of aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone

Back 188

(+) reabsorption of sodium, hydrogen/potassium secretion in DCT of kidneys, gastric mucosa, salivary/sweat glands, controls body fluid volume, [electrolyte]

Front 189

Action of cortisol and corticosterone

Back 189

(+) gluconeogenesis, blood glucose, protein/lipid/carb metabolism, anti-inflammatory, stress resistance (-) immune response

Front 190

Action of dehydroepiandrosterone

Back 190

negligible under normal conditions

Front 191

Action of epinephrine and norepinephrine

Back 191

E: (+) blood glucose, cardiac output, BMR, N: (+) BP by vasoconstriction

Front 192

Action of Glucagon

Back 192

(+) blood glucose, gluconeogenesis from amino acids, glycogenolysis

Front 193

Action of Insulin

Back 193

(-) blood glucose, glucose uptake, protein synthesis, lipid synthesis in fat cells

Front 194

Action of somatostatin

Back 194

(-) glucagon/insulin release

Front 195

Action of pancreatic polypeptide

Back 195

(-) somatostatin release, pancreatic exocrine release, gallbladder contraction

Front 196

Action of melatonin and seratonin

Back 196

photoperiodically regulates circadian rhythms, regulates steroidogenic activity of gonads (menstrual cycle), (-) GnRH release from hypothalamus

Front 197

Disorders involving T4 and T3

Back 197

(+) Graves' disease, (-) Myxedema (adults), Cretinism (children)

Front 198

Disorders involving PTH

Back 198

(+) Osteitis fibrosa, (-) Hypocalcemia w/muscle tetany

Front 199

Disorders involving Aldosterone, Deoxycorticosterone

Back 199

(+) Cushing's Disease, (-) Addison's Disease (sodium loss)

Front 200

Disorders involving Cortisol, Corticosterone

Back 200

(-) Addison's Disease (low glucose)

Front 201

Disorders involving Dehydroepiandrosterone

Back 201

(+) female masculinization

Front 202

Disorders involving Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

Back 202

(+) Pheochromocytoma

Front 203

Disorders involving Insulin

Back 203

(+) Insulin Shock, (-) Diabetes mellitus

Front 204

Disorders involving Melatonin (night), Serotonin (day)

Back 204

(+) delayed sexual development, (-) premature sexual development

Front 205

Steroid hormones (adrenal gland)

Back 205

1) glucocorticoids
2) mineralocorticoids
3) androgens

Front 206

Protein sex hormones (gonadotropins)

Back 206

1) follicle stimulating hormone
2) luteinizing hormone
3) human chorionic gonadotropin

Front 207

Steroid hormones (gonadal)

Back 207

1) estrogen
2) progesterone
3) testosterone

Front 208

Types of hormones (7)

Back 208

1) Peptide
2) Thyroid
3) Catecholamine, serotonin & melatonin
4) Acetylcholine
5) Histamine
6) Nitric Oxide
7) Eicosanoid

Front 209

Tissues that produce hormones include (8)

Back 209

1) hypothalamus
2) anterior and posterior pituitary
3) adrenal cortex and medulla
4) gonads
5) thyroid and parathyroid glands
6) gastrointestinal tract cells
7) pancreas
8) heart

Front 210

The neuroendocrine system is centered on

Back 210

1) hypothalamus
2) pituitary gland
3) adrenal gland

Front 211

The neuroendocrine system is responsible for regulating

Back 211

hormone release and function throughout the body

Front 212

The hypothalamus is a region of the brain responsible for

Back 212

maintaining homeostatic mechanisms in the body

Front 213

Pituitary gland receives input from

Back 213

hypothalamus

Front 214

Hormones which are amino acid derivatives

Back 214

T4, T3, catecholamines, serotonin, melatonin, histamine

Front 215

Homones which are arachidonic acid derivatives

Back 215

Eicosanoids

Front 216

Hormones which are cholesterol derivatives

Back 216

Steroids

Front 217

Nitric oxide is produced by nitric oxide synthase using what substrate?

Back 217

L-arginine, NADPH, and O2

Front 218

Overproduction of a particular hormone commonly results from

Back 218

tumor formation

Front 219

Underproduction of a particular hormone can be caused by

Back 219

auto-immune disorders, genetic defects or cancer.

Front 220

Target cell insensitivity is commonly caused by

Back 220

a lack of functional receptors due to genetic defects, autoimmune disorders or overstimulation and downregulation of receptors

Front 221

Synthesis pathway of peptide hormones

Back 221

preprohormone(synthesized in rER)->prohormone (cleaved in rER)->hormone (packaged in Golgi with required processing proteins in "immature" secretory granules)

Front 222

Processing in "immature" secretory granules includes

Back 222

proteolytic cutting the prohormone at the C-terminal side of paired-basic residues (ie lysine and arginine) (requires acidic environment pH~4 generated by H+ATPases)
Resulting peptide hormines then have the C-terminal lysine/arginine removed and are amidated, which makes them more biologically active and helps preserve their halflife.

Front 223

Peptide hormones have short half-lives (minutes) because they are

Back 223

rapidly degraded by serum and cell surface proteases and taken up by cells through receptor mediated endocytosis and degraded by lysosomal proteases

Front 224

Regulation of ACTH (peptide hormone) release is through (3)

Back 224

1) Feedback inhibition by cortisol at the anterior pituitary (direct inhibition of ACTH release and production)
2) Feedback inhibition by cortisol at the hypothalamus (inhibits release of CRH)
3) Negative inhibition by dopamine (inhibits release of ACTH from anterior pituitary)

Front 225

Peptide prohormones are cleaved by

Back 225

processing enzymes called Prohormone Convertases (PC1/3, PC2)

Front 226

Differential processing of prohormones is based on

Back 226

different cleavage locations of PC1 and PC2. PC2 cleaves in more places. Other factors include conditions such as stress.

Front 227

Difference between Cushing's syndrome and Cushing's disease?

Back 227

Both are hypercortisolism.

Cushing's disease is caused by ACTH secreting tumors in the pituitary (most common form of Cushing's). Females >> males

Cushing's syndrome is an adenoma of the adrenal cortex, releasing excess cortisol.

Front 228

Treatment of Cushing's syndrome

Back 228

Ketoconazole or metyrapone

Front 229

Treatment of Cushing's disease

Back 229

surgical remove of ACTH secreting tumor

Front 230

Diabetes Insipidus

Back 230

1/10,000. Polyuria, polydypsia

Front 231

Thyroid hormones

Back 231

DIT + DIT -> T4
DIT + MIT -> T3

Front 232

Five steps of thyroid hormone production

Back 232

1) Thyroglobulin synthesis and processing in the ER and Golgi
2) Thyroglobulin is packaged and moved to colloid space where it is iodinated
3) TSH binds, iodinated TG moves back to the cell, fuses with lysosomes, proteases cleave the peptide bonds to form T3 and T4.
4) Release of T3 & T4 regulated by TSH - binds to receptors on follicular cells and increases cAMP. Secretion occurs rapidly after T3 & T4 production
5) T4 goes to T3 in peripheral tissue. Liver degenerates T4 and T3. Can also be conjugated with glucuronides and sulfates (bile).

Front 233

Approximately how much plasma T3 is produced by the thyroid?

Back 233

20%. The other 80% comes from deiodination of T4.

Front 234

Thyroid hormones are primarily eliminated by the

Back 234

kidneys. However approximately 20% of T4 reaches the colon.

Front 235

TSH is produced by the

Back 235

anterior pituitary

Front 236

TRH is produced by the

Back 236

hypothalamus

Front 237

T3 & T4 negatively feeds back to the

Back 237

hypothalamus (inhibits TRH production)

Front 238

What do thyroid hormones do in the fetus?

Back 238

Required for skeletal and CNS growth

Front 239

What do thyroid hormones do in adult?

Back 239

effect BMR as well as protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.

Front 240

T4 is converted to T3 by

Back 240

5'-iodinase

Front 241

Cause of hypothyroidism?

Back 241

Insufficient circulation of free T3 or T4

Front 242

Symptoms of hypothyroidism (3)

Back 242

1) Lowered BMR
2) Diastolic hypertension
3) Goiter

Front 243

Treatment for hypothyroidism?

Back 243

Levothyroxine

Front 244

Cause of hyperthyroidism?

Back 244

Autoimmune - antibodies to TSH receptor

Front 245

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism? (3)

Back 245

1) Increased metabolic rate
2) Exophthalmos (protruding eyes)
3) Goiter

Front 246

Treatment of hyperthyroidism? (2)

Back 246

1) Surgical resection of the thyroid gland
2) 131-I to destroy hyperfunctioning thyroid acinar cell population

Front 247

Sequence of hypothyroidism

Back 247

decreased T3 and T4 production -> increased secretion of TSH from pituitary -> increased levels of TSH cause thyroid to increase T3 and T4 production -> enlarges thyroid to produce more hormone

Front 248

Graves disease is

Back 248

hyperthyroidism

Front 249

Hyperthyroidism is caused by

Back 249

continuous activation of TSH receptors by antibodies to TSH receptors. Increases T4 and T3 production which causes the thyroid to increase in size.

Front 250

Function of epinephrine

Back 250

Fight or flight response

Front 251

Function of norepinephrine (2)

Back 251

1) fight or flight response
2) attention

Front 252

Function of dopamine (2)

Back 252

1) focus
2) inhibits prolactin from pituitary

Front 253

Rate limiting step in the synthesis of catecholamines

Back 253

tyrosine hydroxylase

Front 254

Enzyme for Tyrosine->L-DOPA

Back 254

tyrosine hydroxylase

Front 255

Enzyme for L-DOPA -> dopamine

Back 255

L-Dopa decarboxylase

Front 256

Enzyme for dopamine -> norepinephrine

Back 256

dopamine-beta-hydroxylase

Front 257

Enzyme for norepinephrine -> epinephrine

Back 257

phenylethanolamine-n-methyl transferase

Front 258

Degradation of catecholamines is done by what enzymes?

Back 258

COMT and MAO

Front 259

Synthesis location of epinephrine?

Back 259

Adrenal medulla, where it constitutes 80% of the catecholamines

Front 260

Synthesis location of norepinephrine? (3)

Back 260

1) Sympathetic nerves
2) Adrenal medulla
3) CNS

Front 261

Synthesis location of dopamine?

Back 261

CNS (CANNOT cross the blood-brain barrier)

Front 262

True or False. L-DOPA can cross the blood-brain barrier.

Back 262

True

Front 263

Pheochromocytoma is

Back 263

a tumor of in the adrenal medulla

Front 264

Symptoms of pheochromocytomas

Back 264

hypertension and tachycardia caused by excessive production of catecholamines

Front 265

Treatment of pheochromocytomas

Back 265

surgery, radiation, chemotherapy

Front 266

Serotonin plays a role in (5)

Back 266

1) mood
2) sleep
3) emesis (vomiting)
4) sexuality
5) appetite

Front 267

Disorders involving serotonin (4)

Back 267

1) depression
2) migraine
3) bipolar disorder
4) anxiety

Front 268

Melatonin is believed to be responsible for

Back 268

regulating sleep/wake cycles

Front 269

Serotonin and melatonin are produced in the

Back 269

pineal gland

Front 270

True or False. Serotonin is secreted by cells in the small intestine, where it serves as a potent vasoconstrictor and smooth muscle stimulator

Back 270

True

Front 271

Serotonin and melatonin levels undergo cyclic variations in phase with

Back 271

circadian rhythms

Front 272

Serotonin and melatonin are synthesized from

Back 272

tryptophan.

Front 273

Tryptophan is first transported into the cell and acted on by ... which is the rate limiting step for serotonin and melatonin biosynthesis

Back 273

tryptophan hydroxylase

Front 274

Synthesis of serotonin

Back 274

tryptophan->5-hydroxytryptophan->serotonin

Enzymes:
1) tryptophan hydroxylase
2) 5-hydroxytryptophan decarboxylase

Front 275

Synthesis of melatonin

Back 275

serotonin->n-acetylserotonin->melatonin

Enzymes
1) serotonin n-acetyltransferase
2) hydroxy indole o-methyltransferase (HIOMT)

Front 276

True or False. Serotonin must be removed or it will continue to elicit a response.

Back 276

True

Front 277

Two mechanism for serotonin removal

Back 277

1) Broken down by MAO
2) Reuptake by sodium depended transport protein (vesicular transport)

Front 278

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (2)

Back 278

1) fluoxetine (Prozac)
2) paroxetine (Paxil)

Front 279

Treatment for depression (2)

Back 279

1) Inhibit MAO
2) Prevent removal of NT's from synaptic clefts allowing them to remain longer

Front 280

Cocaine inhibits

Back 280

reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Front 281

Inhibitors of tryptophan hydroxylase

Back 281

p-chlorophenylalanine
alpha-propyldopacetamide

Front 282

Inhibitor of MAO

Back 282

Iproniazid

Front 283

Vesicular monoamine transport blocker

Back 283

reserpine

Front 284

Cause of Hartnup's disease

Back 284

Genetic metabolic disorder (defective absorption of the amino acid tryptophan)

Front 285

Symptoms of Hartnup's disease

Back 285

Early onset of
1) photosensitive dermatitis
2) intermittent neurologic symptoms
3) Blue diaper syndrome (indicanuria)

Front 286

Treatment of Hartnup's disease

Back 286

1)high protein diet
2)add di-peptide tryptophan-tryptophan, which is transported by a di-peptide transporter

Front 287

The acetylcholinesterase of the end plate is attached to

Back 287

the basal lamina in the synaptic space

Front 288

True or False. 20% of release ACh is hydrolyzed by AChE before binding to the AChR.

Back 288

True

Front 289

ACh binding to AChR causes the cation-selective channel to open allowing entry to

Back 289

Na+ and Ca++

Front 290

Each vesicle in the motor nerve terminal contains a quantum of about

Back 290

10,000 molecules of ACh

Front 291

Enzyme which synthesizes ACh from Ch

Back 291

choline acetyltransferase

Front 292

ACh is concentrated in synaptic vesicles by

Back 292

H+ dependent ACh transporter

Front 293

Steps of ACh degradation and reuptake

Back 293

1) Degraded to Ch and acetate
2) Ch taken up by nerve terminal Na+ dependent active transport
3) Ch->ACh
4) ACh into vesicles

Front 294

Myasthenia Gravis is caused by

Back 294

autoimmune disease (acetylcholine receptors are target of inflammation)

Front 295

Treatment of myasthenia gravis

Back 295

pyridostigmine, inhibits AChE so there is an increase in ACh in the neuromuscular junction

Front 296

Common symptoms of myasthenia gravis

Back 296

1) double vision
2) droopy eyelids
3) difficulty swallowing
4) generalized weakness

Front 297

Organophosphates do what to AChE?

Back 297

Inhibit

Front 298

Prophylactic treatment of organophosphate exposure

Back 298

Pyridostigmine or other competitve inhibitors of AChE

Front 299

Post-Exposure treatment of organophosphate exposure

Back 299

Atropine, Diazepam, Pralidoxime (2-PAM)

Front 300

Function of histamine

Back 300

potent vasodilator. Released locally at sites of trauma, inflammation, and allergic reaction. It causes enlargement of blood capillaries and can cause lowering of the blood pressure which can lead to shock.

Front 301

Four histamine receptors

Back 301

H1-4

Front 302

H1 histamine receptor

Back 302

found on smooth muscle, endothelium, and CNS tissue. Causes vasodilation, bronchoconstriction, smooth muscle activation, and separation of endothelial cells (responsible for hives), and pain and itching due to insect stings; the primary receptors involved in allergic thinitis symptoms and motion sickness. Stimulates gastric acid secretion in stomach.

Front 303

H2 histamine receptor

Back 303

located on parietal cells, which primarily regulate gastric acid secretion.

Front 304

H3 histamine receptor

Back 304

decreases neurotransmitter release: histamine, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin

Front 305

H4 histamine receptor

Back 305

unknown physiological role. Found primarily in the thymus, small intestine, spleen, and colon. It is also found on basophils and in the bone marrow.

Front 306

Histamine synthesis

Back 306

Histidine->histamine->stored in secretory vesicles inside until release by mast cells and basophils.

Front 307

Histamine breakdown

Back 307

done by histamine-N-methyltransferase and diamine oxidase. Histamine is taken up by a transporter.

Front 308

Histamine responses

Back 308

H1 receptor increases IP3 & DAG
1) smooth muscle, endothelium & brain
2) causes vasodilation, bronchoconstriction, smooth muscle activation
3) separation of endothelial cells (responsible for hives)
4) pain and itching due to insect stings
5) the primary receptors involved in allergic rhinitis symptoms and motion sickness

Front 309

Treatment of allergic reactions

Back 309

Antihistamines
1) diphenhydramine (benadryl) - 1st generation
2) Fexofenadine (allegra)
3) Loratadine (Claritin - 2nd generation

Front 310

Overuse of nasal sprays may lead to

Back 310

a rebound effect (rhinitis medicamentosa)

Front 311

Diphenhydramine competitively antagonizes the effects of histamine of H1-receptors in (4)

Back 311

1) GI tract
2) uterus
3) large blood vessels
4) bronchial muscle

Front 312

Blockade of H1-receptors also suppresses the formation of

Back 312

edema, flare, and pruritus that result from histaminic activity

Front 313

Nitric oxide synthesis

Back 313

Arginine + O2 + NADPH + nitric oxide synthase -> NO + Citrulline

Front 314

NO is broken down by

Back 314

SOD and H2O2.

Front 315

Effects of ACh and Bradykinin on NOS

Back 315

stimulates

Front 316

Effects of glucocorticoids on NOS

Back 316

inhibits

Front 317

Nitric oxide increases cGMP synthesis which

Back 317

acts to inhibit platelet aggregation

Front 318

Sildenafil (Viagra) and tadalafil (Cialis) are selective inhibitors of

Back 318

cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5, which is responsible for degradation of cGMP in the corpus cavernosum.

Front 319

Types of eicosanoids (4)

Back 319

1) Thromboxanes
2) Prostacyclin (PGI2)
3) Leukotrienes
4) Prostaglandins

Front 320

Eicosanoids play a central role in

Back 320

the inflammatory response

Front 321

Eicosanoids are synthesized by all mammalian cells except

Back 321

erythrocytes

Front 322

Function of thromboxane

Back 322

1) vasoconstrictor
2) induces platelet aggregation

Front 323

Function of prostacyclin (OGI2)

Back 323

1) Vasodilator
2) Inhibits platelet aggregation

Front 324

Synthetic prostacyclin analogues

Back 324

iloprost and cisaprost. Used as a vasodilator and to treat pulmonary hypertension

Front 325

Production of prostacyclin is inhibited indirectly by

Back 325

NSAIDS which inhibit COX1 and COX2

Front 326

Function of leukotrienes

Back 326

Chemotaxis
Inflammation
Allergic reactions
SRS-A (slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis = SM contraction)

-mixure of leukotrienes (C4,D4,E4)
-1000X more potent than histamine

Front 327

Leukotriene B4 recruits

Back 327

neutrophils and eosinophils to the site of inflammation

Front 328

Leukotrienes act principally on a subfamily of

Back 328

G protein coupled receptors

Front 329

Leukotriene receptor antagonists are used to treat

Back 329

asthma (eg montelukast)

Front 330

Examples of leukotrienes

Back 330

LTA4, LTB4, LTC4. LTD4, LTE4, LTF4

Front 331

Function of prostaglandins (4)

Back 331

1) muscle constriction
2) mediate inflammation
3) calcium movement
4) hormone regulation

Front 332

Five stages to eicosanoids synthesis

Back 332

phospholipid->arachidonic acid(occurs inside granules of mast cells)->stored in secretory vesicles.

Rapid degraded due to their own instability by oxidation of 15ahydroxyl group.

Front 333

Inhibition of Phospholipase A2 by

Back 333

lipocortins (annexins)

Front 334

Inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase by

Back 334

Aspirin, ibuprofen, acetaminophen

Front 335

Inhibition of lipoxygenase or leukotriene receptors by

Back 335

Zileuton, montelukast and zafirlukast

Front 336

3 steroid hormone classifications

Back 336

1) glucocorticoids
2) mineralocorticoids
3) androgens (DHEA)

Front 337

Glycocorticoids affect

Back 337

intermediary metabolism

Front 338

Mineralocorticoids affect

Back 338

salt-retaining activity

Front 339

Androgens (DHEA) affect

Back 339

sex hormones

Front 340

True or False. Steriods are not stored in vesicles like other hormones, but readily diffuse out of the cell as soon as they are made.

Back 340

True

Front 341

Steroids are degraded by

Back 341

dehydrogenases in the hepatic and extrahepatic sites.

Front 342

Two glucocorticoids

Back 342

1) Cortisol
2) Corticosterone

Front 343

Made in the adrenal cortex, involved in response to stress, increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, suppresses immune system.

Back 343

Cortisol

Front 344

Made in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex. Intermediate in the pathway from pregnenolone to aldosterone.

Back 344

Corticosterone

Front 345

Transcortin is

Back 345

corticosteroid-binding globulin

Front 346

Glucocorticoids inhibit

Back 346

CRH, ACTH, and cortisol secretion

Front 347

Effect of prolonged glucocorticoid administration (3)

Back 347

1) suppression of CRH and ACTH release
2) atrophy of the zonae fasciculata and reticularis
3) suppressed HPA-axis fails to response to stress and stimulation

Front 348

Approximately half of the total daily cortisol output is secreted during

Back 348

3rd - 8th hours of sleep

Front 349

Symptoms of stress (2)

Back 349

1) ACTH and cortisol increase within minutes
2) Abolish circadian periodicity if the stress is prolonged

Front 350

The stress response originates in the CNS by

Back 350

increasing CRH secretion from the hypothalamus

Front 351

Treatment for stress

Back 351

1) Regular exercise
2) reassurance
3) biofeedback
4) counseling

Front 352

Principle mineralocorticoid is

Back 352

aldosterone

Front 353

Mineralocorticoids are produced in the

Back 353

zona glomerulosa

Front 354

Principle action of mineralocordicoids is

Back 354

regulation of electrolytes

Front 355

Renin-angiotensin system

Back 355

1) Decreased blood flow to kidneys
2) Kidney secrete RENIN
3) RENIN reacts with ANGIOTENSINOGEN to produce ANGIOTENSIN I (weak vasoconstrictor)
4) ACE in the lungs convert ANGIOTENSIN I->ANGIOTENSIN II (strong vasoconstrictor)
5) ANGIOTENSIN II acts on the adrenal cortex to release ALDOSTERONE
6) ALDOSTERONE stimulates Na+/K+ ATPase
7) Na+ reabsorbed (along with water)
8) Increased blood volume, decreased urine volume
9) Increased blood pressure

Front 356

Release of renin by the kidney caused by (3)

Back 356

1) sympathetic stimulation of beta1-adrenoceptors
2) renal artery hypotension
3) decreased sodium in the distal tubules

Front 357

Functions of angiotensin II (6)

Back 357

1) Constricts resistance vessels (via ATII receptors) thereby increasing systemic vascular resistance and arterial pressure
2) Acts upon the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, which in turn acts upon the kidneys to increase sodium and fluid retention
3) stimulates the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary which acts upon the kidneys to increase fluid retention
4) stimulates thirst centers within the brain
5) facilitates norepinephrine release from sympathetic nerve endings and inhibits norepinephrine reuptake by nerve endings, thereby enhancing sympathetic adrenergic function
6) Stimulates cardiac hypertrophy and vascular hypertrophy

Front 358

ACE inhibitors and AII receptor blockers are used to

Back 358

decrease arterial pressure, ventricular afterload, blood volume and ventricular preload.

Reverses cardiac and vascular hypertrophy

Front 359

Generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors

Back 359

Androgen

Front 360

True or False. Androgens are the original anabolic steroids.

Back 360

True

Front 361

The primary and most well-known androgen is

Back 361

testosterone

Front 362

4 adrenal androgens (produced by the adrenal cortex)

Back 362

1) DHEA
2) DHEA sulfate
3) androstenedione
4) testosterone

Front 363

DHEA is a precursor of

Back 363

natural estrogens

Front 364

Androstenedione is produced by

Back 364

testes, adrenal cortex, and ovaries. Metabolically converted to testosterone.

Front 365

Steroid metabolite thought to act as the main regulator of gonadotropin secretion

Back 365

Androstanediol

Front 366

Breakdown product of androgens

Back 366

Androsterone

Front 367

A metabolite of testosterone that is actually more potent

Back 367

dihydrotestosterone

Front 368

Measurements of these are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Back 368

DHEA/DHEA sulfate

Front 369

Mineralocorticoids are produced in the

Back 369

zona glomerulosa

Front 370

Glucocorticoids are produced in the

Back 370

zona fasciculata

Front 371

Androgens are produced in the

Back 371

zona reticularis

Front 372

Types of gonadotropins (3)

Back 372

1) FSH
2) LH
3) hCG

Front 373

FSH is produced by the

Back 373

pituitary gland

Front 374

Functions of FSH (4)

Back 374

1) Promotes and sustains the ovarian follicular growth in women
2) Promotes and sustains spermatogenesis in men
3) Stimulates the synthesis of its own receptor on granulosa and Sertoli cells
4) Stimulates aromatase activity inside granulosa cells

Front 375

Aromatase is an enzyme that converts

Back 375

androgens into estrogens

Front 376

FSH synthesis and secretion by the hypophysis is controlled by different regulators such as (3)

Back 376

1) GnRH
2) ovarian estrogens
3) activin and inhibin

Front 377

LH is produced by the

Back 377

hypophysis (pituitary)

Front 378

Three main functions of LH

Back 378

1) Promotes androgen synthesis in a) thecal cells of ovaries b) interstitial cells of testes
2) Induces ovulation
3) Maintains the corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle

Front 379

hCG is produced by

Back 379

syncytiotrophoblast cells of the placenta

Front 380

Functions of hCG (2)

Back 380

1) Maintains corpus luteum of pregnancy (promotes progesterone secretion)
2) Anti-gonadotrophic effect (inhibits LH&FSH, Stimulates steroid secretion from fetal gonads)

Front 381

Prolactin (a lactotroph) is produced by (2)

Back 381

1) pituitary
2) stromal cells of endometrium

Front 382

Functions of prolactin (2)

Back 382

1) Breast development
2) Lactation

Front 383

Pituitary prolactin secretion is inhibited by 1) ... and stimulated by 2) ...

Back 383

1) dopamine
2) TRH and VIP

Front 384

Steroid hormones (3)

Back 384

1) esterogen
2) progesterone
3) testosterone

Front 385

Rate limiting step of steroid hormone synthesis

Back 385

Conversion to pregnenolone by remove of 6 carbon frament (isocaproic acid)

Front 386

Steroid hormone synthesis is controlled by

Back 386

LH from the anterior pituitary

Front 387

Maintains a high local concentration of testosterone in the vicinity of developing spermatozoa

Back 387

androgen binding protein

Front 388

Three types of estrogen steroids

Back 388

1) Estrone (E1)
2) Estradiol (E2)
3) Estriol (E3)

Front 389

True or False. At equal concentrations, E2 > E1 > E3

Back 389

True

Front 390

Most common natural estrogen formulation

Back 390

10% E1
10% E2
80% E3

Front 391

Functions of estrogen (7)

Back 391

1) Development of secondary sexual organs and features
2) Maturation of germ cells
3) Development of uterus
4) Maintenance of endometrium
5) Establish timing of ovulation
6) Maintenance of pregnancy
7) Mammary gland development and lactation

Front 392

Estrogen circulating in the blood can feedback to reduce circulating levels of

Back 392

FSH and LH

Front 393

Synthesis of estrogens occurs in

Back 393

1) developing follicles in the ovaries, corpus luteum, and placenta
2) liver, adrenal glands, breasts

Front 394

Synthesis pathway of estrogen

Back 394

cholesterol->androstenedione->estrone or estradiol

Front 395

Androgens are produced by the thecal cells under the influence of

Back 395

LH

Front 396

Androgens are converted to E2 in the granulosa cells of the follicle through the enzyme

Back 396

aromatase

Front 397

E1 is produce in the

Back 397

thecal cells, under the influence of LH

Front 398

Very low concentrations of E3 are produce in

Back 398

the liver, hydroxylation of E1 and E2

Front 399

During pregnancy, E3 is produced in large quantities by the

Back 399

feto-placental unit

Front 400

Two sex hormones that play a role in the control of the menstrual cycle

Back 400

estradiol and progesterone

Front 401

Progesterone becomes critical during which phase of the menstrual cycle?

Back 401

Luteal

Front 402

Tests for ovulation check for the presence of

Back 402

progesterone

Front 403

FSH stimulates

Back 403

follicles to grow

Front 404

LH stimulates

Back 404

ovulation

Front 405

Corpus luteum secretes both

Back 405

estradiol and progesterone

Front 406

Functions of progesterone

Back 406

1) Prepares uterus for implantation
2) Decreases maternal immune response
3) Decreases contractility of uterine smooth muscle
4) Helps maintain the pregnancy

Front 407

3 Neurosteroids

Back 407

1) Progesterone
2) Pregnenolone
3) Dehydroepiandrosterone

Front 408

Starting material for all steroid hormones

Back 408

Pregnenolone

Front 409

Progesterone is a precursor for

Back 409

aldosterone

Front 410

Menstrual cycle is regulated by

Back 410

LH and FSH (pituitary)
estrogen and progesterone (ovaries)

Front 411

Before 6 weeks gestation, what is the main source progesterone? After 12 weeks?

Back 411

Corpus luteum.
Placenta

Front 412

Progesterone receptor antagonist

Back 412

RU486

Front 413

Enzyme which converts testosterone to DHT

Back 413

5-alpha-reductase

Front 414

Function of testosterone

Back 414

1) sexual differentiation
2) spermatogenesis
3) development of secondary sexual organs, structures, and characteristics
4) anabolic metabolism and gene regulation
5) male-pattern behavior

Front 415

In bones, estradiol accelerates maturation of

Back 415

cartilage into bone

Front 416

GnRH stimulates production of

Back 416

LH

Front 417

LH stimulates testosterone production from

Back 417

interstitial cells of the testes (Leydig cells)

Front 418

Maturation of spermatozoa requires both

Back 418

LH and FSH

Front 419

FSH stimulates testicular growth and an androgen binding protein necessary for

Back 419

sustaining the maturing sperm cell

Front 420

Two possible pathways to testosterone

Back 420

1) delta-4 (major): hydroxylation of progesterone -> side chain cleaved to form androstenedione
2) delta-5: pregnenolone->DHEA->androstenedione

Front 421

Immediate precursor of testosterone

Back 421

androstenedione

Front 422

Infants with 5-alpha-reductase disorder appear

Back 422

female, lack of secondary sex characteristics. At puberty, females will virulize because of increase in testosterone levels

Front 423

Proteins vs Steriods

Back 423

see 40-136

Front 424

Tubular organ lining epithelium and compact organs of the digestive system are derived from what germ layer?

Back 424

Endoderm

Front 425

The wall of the alimentary canal consists of four layers

Back 425

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and adventitia

Front 426

Alimentary Canal Mucosa: 2 types of epithelium

Back 426

1) stratified squamous non-keratinized (protective)
2) simple columnar - secretoary/absorptive

Front 427

Alimentary Canal Mucosa: glands in surface epithelium

Back 427

1) exocrine - goblet cells
2) endocrine - DNES (APUD) cells

Front 428

Alimentary Canal Mucosa: Characteristics of Lamina Propria

Back 428

loose connective tissue with numerous reticular fibers. Part of immune system. GALT. Richly vascularized; fenestrated blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries

Front 429

Alimentary Canal Mucosa: Characteristics of Muscularis Mucosae

Back 429

"thin smooth muscle; hallmark of esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine"

Front 430

Alimentary Canal Muscularis Mucosae: Two layers of smooth muscle in muscularis mucosae

Back 430

inner circular and outer longitudinal

Front 431

Alimentary Canal Muscularis Mucosae: Function of muscularis mucosae

Back 431

causes localized movements of mucosa which aid in digestion and absorption

Front 432

Alimentary Canal Submucosa: Characteristics

Back 432

"loose to moderately dense, irregular fibroelastic connective tissue (mostly type 1 collagen); GALT; contains largest blood and lymphatic vessels;"

Front 433

Alimentary Canal Submucosa: Submucosal simple branched tubular glands are only present in

Back 433

esophagus and duodenum

Front 434

Alimentary Canal Submucosa: Submucosal plexus of Meissner

Back 434

Parasym plexus synapses occur; also sympath. Fibers but no synapse. Controls motility of mucosa and secretory glands

Front 435

Alimentary Canal Muscularis Externa

Back 435

lips to upper 1/4 of esophagus = skeletal muscle; lower fourth of esophagus to rectum = smooth muscle. Anal canal = smooth muscle of internal sphincter and skeletal muscle of external sphincter

Front 436

Alimentary Canal Muscularis Externa has

Back 436

2 circular layers; peristaltic activity; inner circular control lumen; outer longitudinal shortens tube locally

Front 437

Alimentary Canal Muscularis Externa: Myenteric plexus of Auerbach

Back 437

2nd component of enteric nervous system; located between circular and longitudinal; parasymph gang. Synapses. Also sympath but no synapse

Front 438

Alimentary Canal Adventitia: Characteristics

Back 438

thin connective tissue (primarily type I collagen); sometimes covered by mesothelium; intraperitoneal = covered in serosa; retroperitoneal = behind serosa

Front 439

The enteric nervous system is a self-contained nervous system composes of

Back 439

numerous repeating ganglia known as the myenteric and submucosal plexuses

Front 440

"The ENS, innervating the alimentary canal, is modulated by"

Back 440

parasym and sym NS

Front 441

"True or False. If the sym and parasym connection to the entire gut are severed, the alimentary canal can perform all of its functions without any major problems"

Back 441

TRUE

Front 442

Pacemakers which establish the rthythm of bowel contractions through their influence on electrical slow-wave activity are known as

Back 442

interstitial cells of Cajal

Front 443

The myenteric plexus of Auerbach is situated between

Back 443

"muscle layers of the muscularis externa, contains neurons responsible for motility"

Front 444

The smaller submucosal plexus of Meissner contains

Back 444

"sensory cells that ""talk"" to the neurons of the myenteric plexus, and fibers that stimulate secretion from epithelial crypt cell into the gut lumen"

Front 445

"True or False. The submucosal plexus contains fewer neurons and thinner interganglionic connectives (interneurons) than does the myenteric plexus, and has fewer neurons per ganglion."

Back 445

TRUE

Front 446

APUD cells in the gut secrete serotonin which acts to

Back 446

"excite the mucosal afferent nerves, initiating the peristaltic reflex"

Front 447

Neurotransmitters which cause inner circular layer of muscularis externa to contract

Back 447

ACh and substance P

Front 448

Neurotransmitters which cause inner circular layer of muscularis externa to dilate

Back 448

vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and nitric oxide

Front 449

Increases peristalsis activity

Back 449

parasympathetics

Front 450

decreases peristasis activity

Back 450

sympathetic

Front 451

parasympathetic input comes from the … except in the colon and rectum where it comes from the …

Back 451

"Vegas nerve, sacral outflow"

Front 452

"Generally, parasympathetics"

Back 452

"stimulate peristalsis, inhibit sphincters, trigger secretion"

Front 453

sympathetic input comes from

Back 453

splanchnic nerves (vasomotor)

Front 454

"generally, sympathetics"

Back 454

"inhibit peristalsis, activate sphincters"

Front 455

Lining mucosa of oral cavity

Back 455

stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 456

Masticatory mucosa of oral cavity

Back 456

stratified squamous parakeratinized

Front 457

Specialized mucosa of oral cavity

Back 457

stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 458

stratified squamous parakeratinized is different because

Back 458

stratum granulosum is missing and stratum corneum cells don't die

Front 459

Specialized mucosa is specialized to

Back 459

perceive taste

Front 460

Lips are divided into 3 regions

Back 460

"skin, vermilion border, mucosa"

Front 461

V shaped groove between the body and root of tongue is called the

Back 461

sulcus terminalis

Front 462

"Extrinsic muscles of the tongue … the tongue, while intrinsic muscles … the tongue"

Back 462

protrude/retrude. Alter the shape of

Front 463

The dorsum of the tongue is uneven because of the presence of the

Back 463

lingual tonsils

Front 464

These are located in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue only

Back 464

lingual papillae

Front 465

Characteristics of filliform papillae

Back 465

"sharp filimentous, most numerous, parakeratinized epithelium, contain tactile receptors but no taste buds"

Front 466

Characteristics of fungiform papillae

Back 466

"many blood vessels in LP, ~5 taste buds on upper surface, stratified squamous nonkeratinized"

Front 467

Characteristics of vallate papillae

Back 467

form an inverted V-shaped row proximal to terminal sulcus; ducts from von Ebner's glands empty into crypt; secrete lingual lipase; 100-300 taste buds on wall of crypts but not on upper surface; stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 468

Characteristics of taste buds

Back 468

"small intraepithelial structures; nearly 10,000; average lifespan of 10 days; entirely within epithelium not in LP; on fungiform,vallate papilla , soft palate, pharynx, larynx"

Front 469

4 types of gustatory receptor cells

Back 469

type IV (basal): unipotential stem cells; type I-III: taste cells synpase with nerve fibers; microvilli; neuroepithelial; SVA

Front 470

Salty is detected by

Back 470

Na+ enters through ion channels

Front 471

Sour (acidic) is detected by

Back 471

H+ enters through ion channels

Front 472

Sweet and umami are detected by

Back 472

G-protein

Front 473

bitter is detected by

Back 473

"G-protein (gustducin, similar to transducin)"

Front 474

Fungiform papilla taste cells innervated by

Back 474

CN VII

Front 475

Vallate papilla taste cells innervated by

Back 475

CN IX

Front 476

Throat and epiglottis taste cells innervated by

Back 476

CN X

Front 477

3 glands of the tongue

Back 477

1) Anterior Lingual 2) Posterial Lingual 3) von Ebner's glands

Front 478

Posterior lingual glands are

Back 478

mucous glands located in the root of the tongue

Front 479

von Ebner's glands are

Back 479

underlying the crypts surrounding the vallate papillae. All serous acini. Ducts open into crypts. Secrete lingual lipase.

Front 480

# of permenant teeth

Back 480

"32 (16 top, 16 bottom)"

Front 481

# of deciduous teeth

Back 481

"20 (10 top, 10 bottom)"

Front 482

Makeup of permenant teeth

Back 482

"8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, 12 molars"

Front 483

Makeup of deciduous teeth

Back 483

"8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 molars"

Front 484

Dentin is a special hard connective tissue derived from

Back 484

mesenchyme originating from neural crest

Front 485

Only part of tooth derived from ectoderm

Back 485

Enamel

Front 486

Enamel-covered part of tooth is known as the

Back 486

anatomical crown

Front 487

Three divisions of the tooth

Back 487

"crown, neck, root"

Front 488

All three hard tissues of the tooth differ from bone in that they are

Back 488

avascular

Front 489

"Enamel differs from dentin, cementum, and bone in that it"

Back 489

lacks collagen as its main organic component

Front 490

Soft tissue in the middle of the tooth consisting of loose connective tissue supplied with numerous small blood vessels and nerve fibers that enter the apical foramen of the root canal is known as the

Back 490

dental pulp

Front 491

Cells responsible for producing dentin are the

Back 491

odontoblasts

Front 492

ligament which supports the tooth

Back 492

periodontal ligament

Front 493

periodontal ligament is richly vascularized and contains afferents sensitive to

Back 493

pressure

Front 494

bony socket in which the tooth is suspended by the periodontal ligament

Back 494

alveolus

Front 495

gomphosis is the

Back 495

"dentoalveolar joint, classified as a synarthrosis (immovable joint)"

Front 496

gingiva (gums) has what kind of epithelium?

Back 496

stratified squamous parakeratinized

Front 497

shallow ring-like groove where the gingiva borders the tooth

Back 497

gingival sulcus

Front 498

Bulk of the tooth

Back 498

dentin

Front 499

Dentin has a chemical composition similar to

Back 499

bone

Front 500

Hardest material found in the body consisting almost entirely of large apatite crystals

Back 500

enamel

Front 501

Enamel is produced prior to tooth eruption by

Back 501

"ameloblasts, ectoderm-derived"

Front 502

Cementum resembles bone except that it is

Back 502

avascular

Front 503

The palate is composed of the

Back 503

"hard palate, soft palate, and uvula"

Front 504

Characteristics of hard palate

Back 504

"core of bone, lingual side is lined with stratified squamous parakeratinized"

Front 505

Characteristics of soft palate

Back 505

Core of skeletal musclel stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 506

Characteristics of uvula

Back 506

most posterior extension of soft palate; stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 507

Three salivary glands

Back 507

"parotid (ectoderm), submandibular (endoderm), sublingual (endoderm)"

Front 508

parotid glands secrete

Back 508

"serous from branched acinar glands, 25% of total salivary volume, Stensen's duct"

Front 509

submandibular glands produce

Back 509

"serous and mucus, 70% of salivary volume, branched tubuloacinar glands, serous demilunes, striated ducts, epidermal growth factor, Wharton's duct"

Front 510

Sublingual gland secretes

Back 510

"serous and mucous (mostly), 5% of salivary volume, no intercalated ducts, ducts of Rivinus"

Front 511

2 types of interlobular ducts

Back 511

1) intercalated - simple cuboidal 2) striated - simple columnar

Front 512

Mostly from submandibular glands; about 1000 mL per day; parasym = greatly increase secretions - more watery; sym = moderately increase secretions - more viscous

Back 512

saliva

Front 513

Parotid glands innervated by

Back 513

CN IX

Front 514

Submandibular and sublingual glands innervated by

Back 514

CN VII

Front 515

"Primary saliva is of the same osmolarity as blood, but under the influence of"

Back 515

aldosterone; can become hypotonic as Na+ is reabsorbed while passing through the striated ducts

Front 516

Functions of saliva

Back 516

"1) moisten and lubricate oral cavity 2) begins carbohydrate digestion via salivary amylase 3) aids in taste by dissolving food material 4) antibacterial activity - IgA, lactoferrin, lysozyme"

Front 517

Middle oropharynx and laryngopharynx lined with

Back 517

stratified squamous epithelium

Front 518

"From the lips to the first 1/3 of the esophagus, what type of muscle?"

Back 518

skeletal

Front 519

Lining epithelium of esophagus is

Back 519

stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Front 520

Intersperse within esophagus epithelium are antigen-presenting cells known as

Back 520

Langerhans cells

Front 521

Muscularis mucosae in the esophagus is unusual in that it

Back 521

consists of only a single layer of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle fibers that become thicker in the vicinity of the stomach

Front 522

Mucous glands in the submucosa of the esophagus are the

Back 522

esophageal glands proper

Front 523

"Mucous glands in the lamina propria of the esophagus, especially inferior end"

Back 523

esophageal cardiac glands

Front 524

Muscularis externa of the esophagus contains

Back 524

"only skeletal muscle in the upper 1/3, only smooth muscle in the lower 1/3, mixture of both in the middle third"

Front 525

Outer surface of esophagus is covered by

Back 525

"adventitia, except for the short serous-covered segment in the abdominal cavity between the diaphragm and stomach"

Front 526

The esophagus has 2 physiological sphincters

Back 526

1) pharyngoesophageal and 2) gastroesophageal

Front 527

Four regions of the stomach

Back 527

1) cardiac 2) fundus 3) body 4) pyloric antrum and canal

Front 528

Region of the stomach which is the transition from the esophagus to the stomach

Back 528

Cardiac region

Front 529

Region of the Stomach which is above a horizontal line drawn from the cardia to the greater curvature

Back 529

Fundus region

Front 530

Region of the stomach which is located between the curvatures

Back 530

Body region

Front 531

"Region of the stomach which is the holding chamber, ends as the pylorus, contains pyloric sphincter"

Back 531

Pyloric antrum and canal region

Front 532

esophagus connects with the stomach at the

Back 532

cardiac orifice

Front 533

Stomach connects with the intestine at the

Back 533

pyloric orifice

Front 534

rugae are

Back 534

major longitudinal folds in the lining of the stomach

Front 535

the stomach is lined with

Back 535

secretory simple columnar surface-lining cells that produce a neutral mucus product (NOT goblet cells)

Front 536

(Stomach) epithelial sheet gland cells are attached by

Back 536

tight junctions

Front 537

Three types of gastric glands

Back 537

1) Cardiac 2) pyloric 3) fundic

Front 538

True or False. Gastric glands are exocrine glands without a true duct

Back 538

TRUE

Front 539

The gastric pit acts as the duct for 2-3 glands and is a surface invagination lined with

Back 539

surface mucus epithelial cells

Front 540

Cardiac glands secrete

Back 540

mucus

Front 541

Pyloric glands secrete

Back 541

"mucus, lysozyme, and hormones"

Front 542

Fundic glands are in the

Back 542

body and fundus of the stomach

Front 543

Five cell types of the fundic glands

Back 543

1) Pluripotential stem cells 2) Mucous neck cells 3) Parietal cells 4) Chief cells 5) DNES Cells

Front 544

Fundic glands: Pluripotential stem cells

Back 544

have bidirectional migration; stimulated by APUD hormone 'gastrin' and EGF

Front 545

Fundic glands: Mucous neck cells

Back 545

in the neck only

Front 546

Fundic glands: Parietal cells

Back 546

"in the neck and base of the fundic gland; very large acidophilic, many mitochondria; invaginations of apical PM w/ microvilli = intracellular secretory canaliculus (only forms with cell is active)"

Front 547

H+ is produced in the parietal cells by the enzyme

Back 547

carbonic anhydrase

Front 548

"In the parietal cells, H+ is pumped into the lumen of the intracellular canaliculus by a "

Back 548

"H+, K+ ATPase. Simultaneously, K+ within the canaliculus is transported into the cell in exchange for the H+ ions. Cl- is transported through Cl- channels"

Front 549

HCO3-/Cl- exchangers are located in the

Back 549

"basolateral cell membrane, while H+,K+-ATPase is on the apical cell membrane"

Front 550

#1 stimulator of acid production

Back 550

histamine

Front 551

Gastrin and histamine from APUD cells

Back 551

stimulate acid production and release

Front 552

Histamine comes from

Back 552

APUD and mast cells

Front 553

Histamine-blocking drugs

Back 553

Tagamet and Zantac

Front 554

Acetylcholine from parasympathetic

Back 554

stimulates acid production

Front 555

Prostaglandins inhibit

Back 555

acid production

Front 556

NSAIDs suppress

Back 556

prostaglandin synthesis

Front 557

Some APUD cells produce somatostatin which

Back 557

inhibits the APUD gastrin producing cells and parietal cells

Front 558

Parietal cells secrete gastric intrinsic factor (glycoprotein) which

Back 558

binds to Vit B12 (needed for erythropoiesis) and is required for absorption in small intestine

Front 559

Found only in the base region in the lower third of the fundic gland

Back 559

Chief cells

Front 560

"Have extensive RER in basal cytoplasm, apical cytoplasm contains zymogen granules that store pepsinogen, secrete gastric lipase"

Back 560

Chief cells

Front 561

Chief cells stimulated by

Back 561

"everything that stimulates parietal cells (gastrin, histamine, parasympathetics)"

Front 562

DNES cells produce and secrete

Back 562

"histamine, gastrin, serotonin, VIP, and somatostatin"

Front 563

DNES cells concentrate secretory granules in the

Back 563

basal cytoplasm

Front 564

"Stimulates parietal cells (acid), chief cells (pepsinogen)"

Back 564

Histamine

Front 565

affects smooth muscle cells (contraction stimulates motility) and parietal cells (inhibit acid secretion)

Back 565

Serotonin

Front 566

"Causes smooth muscle relaxation, blood vessel dilation, stimulates secretion and absorption"

Back 566

vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Front 567

"Stimulates parietal cells (acid), chief cells (pepsinogen), smooth muscle cells (increases gastric motility)"

Back 567

Gastrin

Front 568

"Inhibits release of other GI hormones, gastric acid and pepsinogen secretion, pancreatic exocrine secretion, salivary amylase secretion, intestinal motility, and contraction of gallbladder"

Back 568

somatostatin

Front 569

Stimulates pancreatic intralobular ducts to secrete HCO3- and water

Back 569

Secretin

Front 570

"Stimulates muscularis of gallbladder to contract and release bile, pancreatic acinar cells to secrete enzyme, sphincter of Oddi to relax"

Back 570

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Front 571

Stimulates insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells

Back 571

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

Front 572

"Stimulates gastric and duodenal motility, regulates contraction that occur in 2 hours cycles after meals"

Back 572

Motilin

Front 573

Bacteria which lives in the thick mucus and is primarily responsible for ulceration of the stomach

Back 573

Helicobacter pylori

Front 574

Substances absorbed by the stomach

Back 574

"Water, salts, sugar, alcohol, drugs"

Front 575

Predominantly produced in the stomach and stimulates appetite

Back 575

Ghrelin

Front 576

3 phases in gastric digestion

Back 576

1) Cephalic 2) Gastric 3) Intestinal

Front 577

The rate at which the stomach releases its chyme into the duodenum is a function of

Back 577

"acidity, caloric and fat content, and osmolarity of chyme"

Front 578

Factors that facilitate emptying

Back 578

"distention of stomach, gastrin"

Front 579

Factors that inhibit emptying

Back 579

"distention of duodenum; over-abundance of fat, proteins, carbohydrates; increased osmolarity and excessive acidity of chyme"

Front 580

CCK counteracts

Back 580

gastrin

Front 581

Meal time in stomach

Back 581

carbs < proteins < fats; fats stimulate CCK which causes long setting in stomach

Front 582

Digestion of chyme is primarily done in the

Back 582

duodenum

Front 583

Absorption of nutrients is primarily done in the

Back 583

jejunum and proximal ileum

Front 584

Production of hormones is by

Back 584

APUD cells in the proximal small intestine

Front 585

Small intestine specializations which increase surface area

Back 585

"1) plicae circularis (circular folds) 2) intestinal villi (surface absorptive cells and goblet cells) lacteals, capillary loops 3) Microvilli (striated border microvilli)"

Front 586

Invaginations of the epithelium into the lamina propria between the villi form intestinal glands known as

Back 586

crypts of Lieberkuhn

Front 587

Epithelium of the small intestine has 4 types of cells

Back 587

1) Surface absorptive cells 2) Goblet cells 3) APUD cells 4) M cells

Front 588

Apical surface of these cells presents with striated border microvilli

Back 588

"Surface absorptive cells (tight junctions, absorpt much of the nutrients and fatty acids)"

Front 589

"Unicellular glands, manufacture mucinogen"

Back 589

Goblet cells

Front 590

Produce paracrine and endocrine hormones

Back 590

APUD cells

Front 591

"These cells sample, phagocytose, and transport antigens present in the intestinal lumen"

Back 591

M cells

Front 592

Characteristics of LP of small intestine

Back 592

"Part of GALT, numerous fenestrated capillaries, lacteals, some smooth muscle, intestinal crypts of Lieberkuhn(stem cells are here)"

Front 593

Stem cells of the crypts of Lieberkuhn give rise to

Back 593

"surface absorptive cells, goblet cells, APID cells, Paneth cells"

Front 594

"Contain large acidophilic secretory granules, manufacture lysozyme, TNF-alpha, defensins, trypsin, and phospholipase A2"

Back 594

Paneth cells

Front 595

"These glands secrete a mucous, alkaline fluid in response to parasymp stimulation to help neutralize the acidic chyme that enters the duodenum"

Back 595

Brunner's glands

Front 596

The lamina propria and submucosa of the ileum house permanent clusters of lymphoid nodules known as

Back 596

Peyer's patches

Front 597

Monosaccharides and amino acids enter the absorptive cell through

Back 597

microvillus membrane by transport proteins as a result of secondary active transport

Front 598

Sugars and amino acids are released across the basal PM by

Back 598

"facilitated diffusion, shuttled to the liver"

Front 599

Long chain fatty acids and monoglycerides accumulate collect in the

Back 599

"SER where they are reesterified to triglycerides, transferred to Golgi, form chylomicrons"

Front 600

Lipid rich substance entering the lacteal is known as

Back 600

Chyle

Front 601

Permanent clusters of lymphoid nodules in the ileum are known as

Back 601

Peyer's patches

Front 602

Surface epithelium covering the lymphoid nodules are call

Back 602

follicle-associated epithelium

Front 603

Two additional cells found within the FAE

Back 603

"Intraepithelial lymphocytes (most are helper T cells), and M cells"

Front 604

Characteristics of large intestine

Back 604

"plicae semilunares, crypts of Lieberkuhn, taeniae coli, haustra coli, no Paneth cells, no villi"

Front 605

Apical membrane in large intestine have

Back 605

Na+ and K+ channels responsible for Na+ absorption and K+ secretion.

Front 606

Synthesis of Na+ channels is unduced by

Back 606

aldosterone

Front 607

"In diarrhea, high flow rate of intestinal fluid causes increases"

Back 607

colonic K+ secretion (hypokalemia)

Front 608

Colon also secretes

Back 608

mucus and bicarbonate

Front 609

"True or False. Epithelium of the anal mucosa is simple cuboid/columnar from the rectum to the pectinate line, first stratified columnar then stratified squamous nonkeratinized from the pectinate line to the external alan orifice, and stratified squamous keratinized (epidermis) at the anus"

Back 609

TRUE

Front 610

True or False. Lymph drainage is different above and below the pectinate line

Back 610

TRUE

Front 611

The exocrine pancreas is derived from

Back 611

endoderm

Front 612

Pancreatic acinar cells secrete

Back 612

"trypsinogen (and trypsin inhibitor), chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, proelastase, pancreatic amylase and lipase, deoxyribonuclease, ribonuclease"

Front 613

Enteropeptidase converts

Back 613

trypsinogen to trypsin

Front 614

A distinguishing characteristic of the pancreas is the presence of cells in the beginning of the duct system called

Back 614

centroacinar cells

Front 615

These type of intalobular ducts are not found in the pancreas

Back 615

striated ducts

Front 616

common duct between pancreas and liver

Back 616

ampulla of Vater

Front 617

The intercalated ducts manufacture

Back 617

"serous, bicarbonate-rich alkaline fluid"

Front 618

Daily production of pancreatic juices is about

Back 618

1200 mL

Front 619

Secretin promotes

Back 619

water and ion transport by stimulating intercalated duct cells

Front 620

CCK stimulates acinar cells to synthesize and release

Back 620

digestive enzymes

Front 621

Major effects of CCK

Back 621

"Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice rich in digestive enzymes, causes ejection of bile from the gallbladder and opening of sphincter of Oddi, induces satiety"

Front 622

Minor effects of CCK

Back 622

"Inhibits gastric emptying, promotes normal growth and maintenance of pancreas, and enhances effects of secretin"

Front 623

Liver is divided into 2 principle lobes by the falciform ligament

Back 623

right and left

Front 624

2 other lobes of the liver

Back 624

quadrate and caudate lobes

Front 625

Primary stromal fibers of the liver are

Back 625

reticular fibers

Front 626

Structures that enter the porta hepatis are

Back 626

1) Hepatic portal vein 2) Hepatic artery proper 3) Autonomic nerves

Front 627

Structures that exit the porta hepatis are

Back 627

1) Left and right hepatic ducts 2) efferent lymphatics

Front 628

Branch of the portal vein is called the

Back 628

terminal portal venule

Front 629

Branch of the hepatic artery is called the

Back 629

terminal hepatic arteriole

Front 630

Branch of the biliary duct system is called the

Back 630

bile ductule (usually lined with cuboidal epithelium)

Front 631

Lymphatics are generally one or two small

Back 631

lymphatic capillaries

Front 632

Portal areas refer to sites within the septa that contain the five structures

Back 632

1) terminal portal venule 2) terminal hepatic arteriole 3) bile ductule 4) lymphatic capillaries 5) nerve branches

Front 633

A continuous wall of hepatocytes which surrounds entire interlobular septum is called the

Back 633

limiting plate

Front 634

The space between the connective tissue and the limiting plate is known as

Back 634

periportal tissue space of Mall

Front 635

Basic functional unit of the parenchyma of the liver is the

Back 635

classic lobule

Front 636

"Within lobules, hepatocytes are arranged in"

Back 636

rows or radiating plates (chords) - 1 or 2 cells thick

Front 637

Hepatocytes radiate out from a blood vessel in the center of the lobule called the

Back 637

central vein

Front 638

"Running between the hepatocytes cords, the liver has a special type of blood vessel that called the"

Back 638

sinusoid

Front 639

The primary vascular bed of the liver portal system is in the intestine (fenestrated capillaries). The secondary vascular bed consists of

Back 639

the sinusoids in the liver

Front 640

The arrangement in the liver is known as the

Back 640

hepatic portal system

Front 641

The blood in the sinusoids carries all of the absorbed materials from the intestines except for

Back 641

the bulk of the lipid

Front 642

Every hepatocyte makes at least 1 contact with

Back 642

a sinusoid

Front 643

Triad consists of

Back 643

"hepatic arteriole, bile duct, portal venule"

Front 644

True or False. Blood always flows from the periphery of the lobules (the portal areas) ->sinusoids -> central vein

Back 644

TRUE

Front 645

The liver is the only place in the body that has blood vessels lined by endothelial cells and

Back 645

macrophages

Front 646

Endothelial cells of sinusoids are highly fenestrated and have

Back 646

very large pores without diaphragms

Front 647

"Fixed macrophages, making up the lining of the sinusoidal wall, are called"

Back 647

Kupffer cells

Front 648

Space between the sinusoids and plates of hepatocytes is called the

Back 648

perisinusoidal space of Disse

Front 649

Contents of the perisinusoidal space (5)

Back 649

1) tissue fluid 2) nerve fibers 3) fibroblasts 4) reticular fibers 5) hepatic stellate cells

Front 650

True or False. Tissue fluid and plasma have the same composition

Back 650

TRUE

Front 651

True or False. Tissue fluid gives rise to all the lymph produced in the liver

Back 651

TRUE

Front 652

Hepatic stellate cells secrete

Back 652

"type I collagen, laminin, proteoglycans, and growth factors"

Front 653

Cirrhosis is

Back 653

increased deposition of collagen and ECM components

Front 654

"As the fibrotic process advances in the liver, hepatic stellate cells change into … constricting the lumen of the sinusoids and increasing vascular resistance"

Back 654

myofibroblasts

Front 655

An increase in resistance to flow of portal venous blood in the hepatic sinusoids leads to

Back 655

portal hypertension in cirrhosis

Front 656

"Under normal circumstances, hepatic stellate cells"

Back 656

store fat-soluble vitamin A and produce collagen fibers and ECM components deposited in the space of Disse and around the central vein of the lobule

Front 657

Lymphatic drainage pathway

Back 657

"Plasma exits sinusoids into space of Disse (tissue fluid). Then leaks between hepatocytes into space of Mall, then seeps into connective tissue of portal area. Next, it enters lymphatic capillaries where it is now called ""lymph"""

Front 658

Exocrine product of liver is

Back 658

"bile, produced by hepatocyte"

Front 659

Bile is released into the

Back 659

bile canaliculus

Front 660

True or False. Flow of bile is ALWAYS from the center of the lobules toward the peripheral portal areas

Back 660

TRUE

Front 661

"Very close to the limiting plate is the beginnings of the first true duct, which is the"

Back 661

preductile canal of Hering

Front 662

The preductile canal of Hering goes through the limiting plate and join with the

Back 662

bile ductule in the portal area

Front 663

Characteristics of Hepatocytes

Back 663

"1) single nucleus (80%) or binucleates (20%) 2) 75% are polyploid (endoreduplication) 3) many mitochondria, Golgi, RER, SER, lysosomes, peroxisomes 4) poorly staining cytoplasm"

Front 664

Hepatocytes have a life span of about

Back 664

150 days

Front 665

Surface adjacent to other hepatocytes (15% of cell surface) has

Back 665

many desmosomes (hold cells together) and gap junctions (communicate with neighbors)

Front 666

Cell surface bordering intercellular canaliculi (15% of cell surface) (secretory surface) contains

Back 666

tight junction (close off the canaliculi)

Front 667

Surface bordering the space of Disse (70% of cell surface) (secretory and absorptive surface) has

Back 667

microvilli

Front 668

Functions of hepatocytes

Back 668

1) Secrete bile 2) Protein catabolism 3) Carbohydrate metabolism 4) Lipid metabolism 5) Detoxify drugs and alcohol

Front 669

Two important components of bile

Back 669

bile salts and bilirubin

Front 670

Liver can convert what to produce glucose

Back 670

"glycogen, amino acids, lactic acid, fructose, galactose"

Front 671

Shape of liver acinus is

Back 671

ovoid to diamond; two central veins at each end with two portal areas at the other two ends

Front 672

The backbone of the acinus supply is the

Back 672

arterial blood in branches of hepatic arters

Front 673

Zone 1 (perilobular region) has

Back 673

"highest nuterient and oxygen, most metabolically active, oxidative metabolism here. Active synthesis of glycogen and plasma proteins, most resistant to insult, first to regenerate"

Front 674

Zone 2

Back 674

intermediate region

Front 675

Zone 3

Back 675

"Cells closest to central vein, lowest in oxygen and nutrients, highest in metabolic wastes. Glycolysis happening here. Principle site of alcohol and drug detox. More vulnerable to damage"

Front 676

Lipid deposits in zone 3 hepatocytes may indicate

Back 676

consumption of hepatotoxic substances

Front 677

Centrilobular necrosis of the liver is most likely to occur as a result of

Back 677

"malnutrition, drug and chemical toxicity, or ischemic injury"

Front 678

Function of gallbladder

Back 678

store and concentrate bile

Front 679

gallbladder epithelium

Back 679

"simple columnar, interdigitation. Mucosa reabsorbs water and ions from bile"

Front 680

"In the gallbladder, epithelial clefts or diverticula called ... extend into the wall"

Back 680

Rokitansky-aschoff crypts

Front 681

Bile duct system

Back 681

right + left hepatic ducts -> common hepatic duct + cystic duct -> common bile duct + pancreatic duct -> ampulla of Vater --> sphincter of Oddi

Front 682

Regulation of bile secretion is through

Back 682

parasympathetics and CCK

Front 683

CCK causes ejection of bile from gallbladder and relaxation of

Back 683

sphincter of Oddi

Front 684

Five major processes of the digestive system

Back 684

Ingestion, Motility, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination

Front 685

In the enteric nervous system, ACh causes (3)

Back 685

1) Contraction of smooth muscle in wall of digestive tract
2) Relaxation of sphincters
3)Increased salivary, gastric acid and pancreatic secretions

Front 686

In the enteric nervous system, Norepi causes (3)

Back 686

1) Relaxation of smooth muscle in wall of digestive tract
2) Contraction of sphincters
3) Increased mucus secretion in saliva

Front 687

In the enteric nervous system, Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide causes (2)

Back 687

1) Relaxation of smooth muscle in wall of digestive tract
2) Increased small intestinal and pancreatic secretions

Front 688

In the enteric nervous system, Gastrin-Releasing Polypeptide causes (1)

Back 688

1) Increased gastrin secretion

Front 689

In the enteric nervous system, Enkephalins cause (2)

Back 689

1) Contraction of smooth muscle in wall of digestive tract
2) Decreased intestinal secretion

Front 690

In the enteric nervous system, Neuropeptide Y causes

Back 690

1) Relaxation of smooth muscle in wall of digestive tract
2) Decreased intestinal secretion

Front 691

In the enteric nervous system, Substance P causes (2)

Back 691

1) Contraction of smooth muscle
2) Increased salivary secretion

Front 692

Vegas provide parasympathetics to which portion of the digestive tract?

Back 692

Upper (up to left colic flexure)

Front 693

Sacral outflow provides parasympathetics to which portion of the digestive tract?

Back 693

Lower (descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum)

Front 694

Submucosal and myenteric plexuses are innervated by

Back 694

parasym and sym

Front 695

Parasympathetic neurotransmitters

Back 695

ACh, Substance P, Vasoactive intestinal peptide

Front 696

Sympathetic neurotransmitters

Back 696

Norepinephrine

Front 697

Four sympathetic ganglia serve the digestive tract

Back 697

Celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric and hypogastric

Front 698

During mastication, sensory information is relayed via

Back 698

CN V

Front 699

Muscles of mastication are innervated by

Back 699

CN V

Front 700

Three phases of deglutition (swallowing)

Back 700

Oral (voluntary), Pharyngeal (involuntary), Esophageal (involuntary)

Front 701

Cranial nerves involved in swallowing 1) sensation 2) motor

Back 701

1) V, IX, X
2) V, IX, X, XII

Front 702

Upper esophageal sphincter prevents

Back 702

reflux of bolus back into pharynx

Front 703

During swallowing, 1) soft palate and 2) epiglottis are coverings for

Back 703

1) nasopharynx
2) larynx

Front 704

Slow waves originate into the

Back 704

interstitial cells of Cajal

Front 705

Slow waves are

Back 705

oscillating depolarization and repolarization of the membrane potential of the smooth muscle cells.

Front 706

Phasic contractions happen when

Back 706

action potential threshold is met (strong)

Front 707

Tonic contractions happen when

Back 707

action potential threshold is not met

Front 708

Interstitial cells of Cajal are electrically connected to smooth muscle via

Back 708

gap junctions

Front 709

Upswing of the slow wave is due to

Back 709

inward Ca++ current due to gating of voltage-gated Ca++ channels

Front 710

Plateau of the slow wave is due to

Back 710

inward Ca++ current due to gating of L-type Ca++ channels

Front 711

Downswing of the slow wave is due to

Back 711

outward K+ current due to gating of voltage-gated K+ channels

Front 712

Frequency of slow waves in the stomach and colon

Back 712

3 per minute

Front 713

Frequency of slow waves in the duodenum

Back 713

12 per minute

Front 714

True or False. Frequency of slow waves is not affected by neural or hormonal input.

Back 714

True

Front 715

Periodic contractions followed by relaxation (organized by slow waves); propel and mix contents

Back 715

phasic contractions

Front 716

Maintain a constant level of contraction of tone ("latch state"); found in sphincters

Back 716

tonic contractions

Front 717

Primary peristaltic contractions in the esophagus are mediated by

Back 717

the swallowing reflex

Front 718

If swallows are taken in rapid succession, esophageal motility is inhibited. This is called

Back 718

deglutitive inhibition

Front 719

Opening of lower esophageal sphincter is caused by

Back 719

primary peristaltic contractions and mediated by the vegas nerve which relaxes it

Front 720

Secondary peristaltic contractions are

Back 720

a second series of contractions (if needed) to clear remaining contents

Front 721

Secondary peristaltic contractions begin at

Back 721

point of distention

Front 722

What happens in receptive relaxation?

Back 722

1) Orad region of the stomach relaxes (mediated by vegas)
2) Decreases pressure and increases volume of orad making it easier for bolus to enter

Front 723

Mixing starts in caudad region of stomach and moves toward

Back 723

antrum, getting stronger along the way

Front 724

Full gastric emptying takes approximately

Back 724

3 hours

Front 725

True or False. Liquids empty from the stomach quicker than solids.

Back 725

True

Front 726

True or False. Isotonic chyme empties from the stomach quicker than hypo or hypertonic chyme.

Back 726

True

Front 727

True or False. Carbohydrates empty from the stomach the fastest while lipids empty the slowest.

Back 727

True

Front 728

Motilin mediates

Back 728

migrating myoelectric complex, occuring an 90 minute intervals

Front 729

Ductal cells modify saliva by

Back 729

secreting K+ and HCO3-, and absorbing Na+ and Cl-

Front 730

Ductal cells are impermeable to

Back 730

water

Front 731

Osmolarity of saliva

Back 731

100 mOsm

Front 732

4 organic components of saliva

Back 732

1) salivary amylase
2) lingual lipase
3) mucin glycoprotein
4) antibodies (IgA) and lysozyme

Front 733

Alkaline tide is caused by

Back 733

gastric venous blood

Front 734

Proton pumps transfer H+ into the lumen and ... into the cell

Back 734

K+

Front 735

Gastric secretions include (4)

Back 735

1) Pepsinogen
2) Intrinsic Factor
3) Gastric Lipase
4) Mucus

Front 736

Pepsinogen is secreted by

Back 736

Chief cells

Front 737

Function of pepsin

Back 737

digest protein

Front 738

Intrinsic factor is secreted by

Back 738

parietal cells

Front 739

Intrinsic factor is necessary for

Back 739

proper vitamin B12 absorption in the ileum

Front 740

Lack of intrinsic factor leads to

Back 740

pernicious anemia

Front 741

Parietal cells are located in the body of the stomach and secrete

Back 741

HCl and Intrinsic factor

Front 742

Chief cells are located in the body of the stomach and secrete

Back 742

Pepsinogen

Front 743

G-cells are located in the antrum of the stomach and secrete

Back 743

Gastrin

Front 744

Mucous cells are located in the antrum of the stomach and secrete

Back 744

Mucus and pepsinogen

Front 745

Protein digestion in the stomach is done by

Back 745

pepsin

Front 746

Protein digestion in the small intestine is done by

Back 746

trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase A, carboxypeptidase B and peptidases in the brush border

Front 747

Triglycerides are broken down by

Back 747

lingual, gastric, and pancreatic lipases

Front 748

cholesterol ester is broken down by

Back 748

cholesterol ester hydrolase

Front 749

Phospholipid is broken down by

Back 749

phospholipase A2 into lysolecithin and fatty acid

Front 750

Glucose is absorbed by

Back 750

Na+-glucose cotransport via SGLT-1 cotransporter via secondary active transport on apical membrane. Then facilitated diffusion via GLUT-2 transporter on basolateral membrane

Front 751

Galactose is absorbed by

Back 751

Na+-galactose cotransport via SGLT-1 cotransporter via secondary active transport on apical membrane. Then facilitated diffusion via GLUT-2 transporter on basolateral membrane

Front 752

Fructose is absorbed by

Back 752

Facilitated diffusion via GLUT-5 cotransporter on apical membrane. Facilitated diffusion via GLUT-2 transporter on basolateral membrane

Front 753

There are 4 separate transporters/cotransporters for amino acids

Back 753

1 for basic, 1 for acidic, 1 for neutral, and 1 for imino

Front 754

Amino acids first get into cell by

Back 754

Na+/amino acid cotransporter, then out by facilitated diffusion through amino acid transporter

Front 755

Most protein absorption is in the form of

Back 755

di and tripeptides

Front 756

Apical membrane peptide transport is through

Back 756

H+/peptide cotransporter (one for di and one for tri)

Front 757

Basal membrane peptide transport is

Back 757

same as amino acids because the peptides are broken down once in the cell

Front 758

Absorbed lipids are (4)

Back 758

1) Cholesterol
2) Monoglycerides
3) Lysolecithin
4) Free Fatty Acids

Front 759

All products of lipid digestion are contained within

Back 759

micelles

Front 760

Once mycelle-released lipids diffuse across the apical membrane, they

Back 760

are re-esterified with free fatty acids to form original ingested lipids

Front 761

Lipids are packaged with apoproteins and together are known as

Back 761

chylomicrons

Front 762

Chylomicrons are packaged in secretory vesicles in the

Back 762

Golgi

Front 763

Chylomicrons are exocytosed into

Back 763

lacteals

Front 764

External respiration is 1)... where as internal respiration is 2)...

Back 764

1) Exchange of O2 in the inspired air for CO2 in the blood
2) Exchange of CO2 for O2 in the vicinity of the cells

Front 765

Upper respiratory system includes

Back 765

nose and pharynx

Front 766

Lower respiratory system includes

Back 766

larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

Front 767

Functionally the respiratory system consists of 2 parts

Back 767

1) conducting portion and 2) respiratory portion

Front 768

Main sites of gas exchange

Back 768

alveoli

Front 769

Volume of the conducting portion

Back 769

150mL

Front 770

Volume of the respiratory portion

Back 770

5-6L

Front 771

Starting with the trachea, the air may pass through as many as ... generations of branchings

Back 771

23

Front 772

The first 16 generations of airways are in the ... zone

Back 772

conducting

Front 773

Even though Poiseuille's law suggest that the smallest airways have the highest resistance to airflow, the do not because of

Back 773

their parallel arrangement

Front 774

Four elements which aid in respiration

Back 774

1) rib cage
2) diaphragm
3) intercostal muscles
4) elastic connective tissue of the lung

Front 775

Normal quiet inhalation involves contraction of what muscles of inhalation?

Back 775

diaphragm and external intercostals

Front 776

During normal quiet breathing, exhalation results from

Back 776

elastic recoil

Front 777

During normal quiet breathing, exhalation results from

Back 777

elastic recoil

Front 778

Normal quiet breathing is called

Back 778

eupnea

Front 779

Average healthy adult tidal volume

Back 779

500mL

Front 780

Characteristic epithelium of the conducting portion is

Back 780

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Front 781

The respiratory epithelium is composed of 5 cell types

Back 781

1) Goblet cells - mucus
2) Ciliated solumnar cells-move mucus toward oropharynx
3) Basal cells - stem cells
4) Brush cells
5) DNES cells - regulation

Front 782

Nasal cavity is made up of 4 parts

Back 782

1) External nares
2) Vestibule
3) Nasal cavity proper
4) Olfactory Mucosa

Front 783

Divided by nasal septum; mostly lined by typical respiratory epithelium; communicates with pharynx through choanae; vascular lamina propria; countercurrent head exchange system

Back 783

Nasal cavity proper

Front 784

Swell bodies are

Back 784

a large venous plexus which engorge on one side every half hour to allow mucosal rehydration

Front 785

Conchae cause

Back 785

airflow turbulence

Front 786

Where the lamina propria blends with the periosteum of the underlying bone in the nasal cavity proper is called

Back 786

mucoperiosteum

Front 787

Olfactory epithelium is tall

Back 787

pseudostratified epithelium

Front 788

Three cell types if olfactory mucosa

Back 788

1) Olfactory receptors - middle 1/3
2) Supporting cells - upper 1/3
3) Basal cells - stem cells - lower 1/3

Front 789

Olfactory cilia and receptors for odors and are linked to

Back 789

G-proteins: cAMP->open Na+ channels->nerve impulse

Front 790

Are olfactory receptors are myelinated?

Back 790

no

Front 791

Produces thin, watery fluid that is carried to the surface of the olfactory epithelium which contains lysozyme, IgA and odorant-binding protein

Back 791

olfactory glands of Bowman

Front 792

Perinasal sinuses are lined with

Back 792

respiratory epithelium

Front 793

Boundaries of the nasopharynx

Back 793

Choanae and soft palate

Front 794

Nasopharynx is lined with

Back 794

respiratory epithelium

Front 795

oro and laryngeopharynx are lined by

Back 795

stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium

Front 796

Hyaline cartilages of the larynx

Back 796

Thyroid, cricoid, and lower part of arytenoids

Front 797

Elastic cartilages of the larynx

Back 797

Epiglottis, corniculate, and tips of arytenoids

Front 798

True and false vocal chords are covered by

Back 798

stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium

Front 799

False vocal chords are positioned 1) ... while the true vocal chords are positioned 2) ...

Back 799

1) superiorly
2) inferiorly

Front 800

Between the true and false vocal chords is a recessed region called the

Back 800

vestibule

Front 801

True or False. There are no glands in the lamina propria of the true vocal chords.

Back 801

True

Front 802

Inferior to the true vocal chords the lining epithelium changes to

Back 802

respiratory epithelium

Front 803

Boundaries of the trachea

Back 803

from cricoid cartilage until bifurcation

Front 804

Tracheal walls are supported by

Back 804

10-12 C-rings

Front 805

Dense fibroelastic connective tissue between adjacent C-rings permits

Back 805

elongation of the trachea during inhalation

Front 806

Contraction of the trachealis (smooth muscle) decreases the diameter of the trachea, resulting in faster airflow, which

Back 806

assists in the dislodging of foreign matter from the larynx during coughing

Front 807

The trachea consists of three layers

Back 807

1) Mucosa - respiratory epithelium - thick basement membrane
2) Submucosa - dense irregular fibroelastic w/ seromucous glands
3) Adventitia - C-rings

Front 808

The bronchial tree begins at the

Back 808

bifurcation of the trachea, as right and left primary bronchi, which arborize

Front 809

The airways outside of the lungs are

Back 809

the primary bronchi, extrapulmonary bronchi

Front 810

The airways inside of the lungs are

Back 810

the intrapulmonary bronchi, conducting bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles.

Front 811

With successive branching, there is a decrease in the diameter of the

Back 811

lumen, but an increase in total surface area

Front 812

Decreased airway diameter means decreases cartilage but

Back 812

increased smooth muscle and elastic fibers

Front 813

Decreased airway diameter means decreases

Back 813

cilia (height and number) and glands

Front 814

Have mixed glands, O-rings of cartilage, accompanied by pulmonary arteries, veins, and lymph vessels. Pierces the hilus of the lung.

Back 814

Primary (Main) bronchi

Front 815

The left main bronchus bifurcates but the right main bronchus

Back 815

trifurcates

Front 816

secondary bronchi is the airway to the

Back 816

lobes (AKA lobar bronchi)

Front 817

As secondary bronchi enter the lobes of the lung, they subdivide into smaller branches called

Back 817

tertiary bronchi

Front 818

Each tertiary bronchus arborizes but leads to a discrete section of lung tissue known as a

Back 818

bronchopulmonary segment

Front 819

How many bronchopulmonary segments does each lung have?

Back 819

10

Front 820

Conducting bronchioles supply air to a

Back 820

pulmonary lobule. Lack cartilage and glands.

Front 821

Epithelium of conducting bronchiole is

Back 821

simple solumnar ciliated with goblet cells

Front 822

Has prominent thick layers of helically oriented smooth muscle

Back 822

Conducting bronchioles

Front 823

Sympathetic stimulation of bronchiolar smooth muscle causes

Back 823

relaxation and increases the diameter of the airways (beta-2 adrenergic receptors)

Front 824

Parasympathetic stimulation of bronchiolar smooth muscle causes

Back 824

constriction and decreases the diameter of the airways. Also caused by histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins

Front 825

Each conducting bronchiole subdivides to form smaller

Back 825

terminal bronchioles, which constitute the end of the conducting portion of the respiratory system.

Front 826

Terminal bronchioles have epithelium of

Back 826

ciliated simple cuboidal and lacks goblet cells

Front 827

Clara cells are

Back 827

columnar with dome-shapes apices that have short, blunt microvilli. Secretory granules, anti-inflammatory.

Front 828

Functions of clara cells

Back 828

1) secrete glycoprotein
2) secrete surfactant-like product
3) secrete enzymes
4) release Cl-
5) Stem cells

Front 829

First part of the respiratory portion. Simple cuboidal, clara cells with some cilia (last place for cilia)

Back 829

respiratory bronchioles

Front 830

In the respiratory bronchioles, usually one side of the wall is interrupted by

Back 830

alveoli. In the connective tissue of the opposite wall is a branch of the pulmonary artery

Front 831

walls consist of nothing but alveoli

Back 831

alveolar ducts

Front 832

The respiratory passages from the trachea to the alveolar ducts contain about

Back 832

25 orders of branching

Front 833

Expanded outpouchings of numerous alveoli located at the distal ends of alveolar ducts. No smooth muscle in the walls.

Back 833

Alveolar sacs

Front 834

Alveoli are separated from each other by

Back 834

interalveolar septa which contain one or more alveolar pores.

Front 835

Alveoli are rimmed by

Back 835

elastic fibers

Front 836

Alveoli are lined by

Back 836

highly attenuated simple squamous epithelium composed of type I and type II pneumocytes

Front 837

about 95% of the alveolar surface is composed of simple squamous made up of

Back 837

type I pneumocytes

Front 838

These cells have tight junctions, thin cytoplasm, function in gas exchange, cannot divide

Back 838

type I pneumocytes

Front 839

Cuboidal in shape, microvilli, tight junction, can divide into both types of pneumocytes

Back 839

type II pneumocytes

Front 840

Secretory product of type II pneumocytes is

Back 840

pulmonary surfactant = DPPC

Front 841

Alveolar macrophages make this enzyme which breaks down elastic fibers

Back 841

elastase

Front 842

Alveolar macrophages of patients with pulmonary congestion and congestive heart failure contain phagocytosed, extravasated red blood cells, and are referred to as

Back 842

heart failure cells

Front 843

Interalveolar septum has 2 regions

Back 843

1) Thick - continuous capillaries
2) Thin - form blood-air barriers

Front 844

Blood-air barriers consist of 3 payers

Back 844

1) surfactant and type I pneumocytes
2) Fubed basal laminae of type I pneumocytes and capillary endothelial cells
3) Endothelium of continuous capillaries

Front 845

True or False. In the lung lobules, pulmonary veins are separated from the arteries

Back 845

True

Front 846

Pulmonary vascular supply

Back 846

1) Pulmonary artery
2) Pulmonary veins
3) Bronchiole arteries and veins

Front 847

Pulmonary nerve supply

Back 847

autonomic nerve fibers to smooth muscle of bronchi and bronchioles. PNS causes contraction. SNS causes relaxation.

Front 848

External respiration is

Back 848

gas exchange between the lungs and the blood

Front 849

Internal respiration is

Back 849

gas exchange between the blood and body cells

Front 850

Zones 1-16 are

Back 850

conducting zones

Front 851

Zone 17-23 are

Back 851

respiratory zones

Front 852

Relax smooth muscle, dilate brochioles via beta-2 adrenergic receptors

Back 852

sympathetics

Front 853

contract smooth muscle, constrict bronchioles vis muscarinic receptors

Back 853

parasympathetics

Front 854

beta-2 agonist

Back 854

Albuterol

Front 855

muscarinic antagonist/anchicholinergic

Back 855

Ipratropium

Front 856

beta-2 agonists and anticholinergics work to

Back 856

treat asthma

Front 857

Last place in the respiratory system where cilia is found

Back 857

respiratory bronchioles

Front 858

Last place in the respiratory system where smooth muscle is found

Back 858

alveolar ducts

Front 859

Last place in the respiratory system where cartilage is found

Back 859

bronchi

Front 860

Tidal volume (500mL) is the

Back 860

volume of air inspired or expired during normal, quiet breathing

Front 861

Inspiratory reserve volume (3.0-3.3L) is the

Back 861

maximum amount of air that can be inspired at end of a normal inspiration

Front 862

Expiratory reserve volume (1.0-1.2L) is the

Back 862

maximum amount of air that can be expired at end of a normal expiration

Front 863

Residual volume (~1.2L) is the

Back 863

volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

Front 864

Total lung capacity (5.7L-6.2L) is the

Back 864

volume of air in the lungs after a maximal inspiration

Front 865

Vital capacity (4.5L-5.0L) is the

Back 865

volume of air forcefully expired from lungs after a maximal inspiration

Front 866

Functional residual capacity (2.2L-2.4L) is the

Back 866

volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration

Front 867

Inspiratory capacity (3.5L-3.8L) is the

Back 867

volume of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration

Front 868

FVC (5L) is the

Back 868

volume of air forcefully expired after a maximal inspiraction

Front 869

FEV1 (4L) is the

Back 869

volume of air forcefully expired in the first second

Front 870

FEV3 (4.75L) is the

Back 870

volume of air forcefully expired in three seconds

Front 871

FEV1/FVC * 100% =

Back 871

80%

Front 872

1 cm H2O ~=

Back 872

0.74 mmHg

Front 873

Compliance (dV/dP) is the

Back 873

measure of how volume changes as a result of a pressure change

Front 874

Normal compliance value of the lung is

Back 874

0.13 liters / cm H2O

Front 875

Compliance is directly/inversely proportional to elastance.

Back 875

inversely

Front 876

Increase in lung compliance happens in

Back 876

emphysema. Loss of elastic fibers, Elastance decreases, lung volumes are increased

Front 877

Decrease in lung compliance is seen in

Back 877

Fibrosis. Stiffening of lung tissue, lung resists expansion, lung volumes are decreased.
Infant respiratory distress syndrome. Lack of pulmonary surfactant. Increased surface tension. Difficult to keep alveoli inflated. Atelectasis (collapse of alveoli)

Front 878

Changing radius two fold will change air flow

Back 878

sixteen fold

Front 879

Change in pressure for tidal volume is approximately

Back 879

1-2 cm H2O

Front 880

Pleural pressure is always less than

Back 880

alveolar pressure. Aids in keeping alveoli inflated

Front 881

Pleural pressure is produced by

Back 881

tendency of lungs to recoil and chest wall to expand

Front 882

Transpulmonary pressure is

Back 882

pressure across the alveoli and airways (Ppl - Palv)

Front 883

External respiration occurs between

Back 883

alveoli and pulmonary capillaries

Front 884

Anatomical dead space (conducting zone volume) is approximately

Back 884

volume in mL is equal to weight in pounds

Front 885

Alveolar dead space is due to

Back 885

lack of blood supply or damage to alveoli

Front 886

Physiological dead space is a combination of

Back 886

anatomical and alveolar dead spaces

Front 887

Partial pressure exerted by gaseous water molecules

Back 887

47 mmHg

Front 888

[Dissolved gas]=

Back 888

(Pgas) X (solubility coefficient of gas)

Front 889

Partial pressure of oxygen in dry air

Back 889

160 mmHg

Front 890

Partial pressure of CO2 in dry air

Back 890

negligible

Front 891

Partial pressure of H2O in conducting zone

Back 891

47 mmHg

Front 892

Partial pressure of O2 in conducting zone

Back 892

150 mmHg

Front 893

Partial pressure of CO2 in conducting zone

Back 893

30 mmHg

Front 894

Partial pressure of O2 in alveoli

Back 894

104 mmHg

Front 895

Partial pressure of CO2 in alveoli

Back 895

40 mmHg

Front 896

Partial pressure of O2 in arterial blood

Back 896

95 mmHg or torr

Front 897

Partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood

Back 897

40 mmHg or torr

Front 898

Partial pressure of O2 in venous blood

Back 898

40 mmHg or torr

Front 899

Partial pressure of CO2 in venous blood

Back 899

45 mmHg or torr

Front 900

Partial pressure of O2 in interstitial space

Back 900

40 mmHg or torr

Front 901

Partial pressure of CO2 in interstitial space

Back 901

45 mmHg or torr

Front 902

Partial pressure of O2 in cells

Back 902

20 mmHg or torr

Front 903

Partial pressure of CO2 in cells

Back 903

46 mmHg or torr

Front 904

Diffusion of gas across a membrane is directly proportional to

Back 904

diffusion coefficient, surface area, pressure gradient

Front 905

Diffusion of gas across a membrane is inversely proportional to

Back 905

membreane thickness

Front 906

Body needs approximately ...mL of O2/min

Back 906

250

Front 907

Oxygen transferred in blood as

Back 907

98% bound to hemoglobin, 2% dissolved in plasma

Front 908

Percentage of hemoglobin saturation @ venous block PO2 (40 mmHg)

Back 908

75%

Front 909

Percentage of hemoglobin saturation @ arterial blood PO2

Back 909

98%

Front 910

Inc PCO2, dec pH, inc temp, inc 2,3-DPG cause a shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the

Back 910

right.

Front 911

Inc PCO2, dec pH, inc temp, inc 2,3-DPG cause a shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the

Back 911

right.

Front 912

As more oxygen is bound to Hb, more CO2 will be released from Hb which is known as the

Back 912

Haldane effect (occurs at the lungs)

Front 913

70-90% of CO2 is transported as

Back 913

HCO3-

Front 914

This contains a respiratory center that shapes breating. Bilateral network of meurons with pacemaker-like activity throughout it.

Back 914

Medulla

Front 915

Voluntary aspect of breathing

Back 915

Cerebral cortex

Front 916

Emotional aspect of breathing

Back 916

Hypothalamus

Front 917

Regulates duration of inspiration (shortens inspirations)

Back 917

Pontine respiratory group / Pneumotaxic center

Front 918

Central chemoreceptors are located in multiple areas of the

Back 918

medulla and pons

Front 919

Peripheral chemoreceptors (glomus cells) are located in walls of

Back 919

carotid arteries (carotid body)

Front 920

Strongest chemostimulus to breathing

Back 920

CO2 / pH

Front 921

Located throughout the airways and alveoli. Detect the amount of stretch in the lungs

Back 921

Pulmonary stretch receptors

Front 922

Located throughout limbs and the body

Back 922

Proprioceptors and exteroreceptors

Front 923

Kidneys are intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal

Back 923

retroperitoneal (as is the entire urinary system)

Front 924

Kidneys are at approximately what spinal level?

Back 924

T12

Front 925

Blood pressure is regulated by the kidneys through the

Back 925

renin-angiotensin system

Front 926

The kidneys also secrete 1) Erythropoietin and 2) Calcitriol which do what?

Back 926

1) Stimulate red blood synthesis in the blood marrow
2) Regulates calcium homeostasis

Front 927

Waste products excreted in urine include

Back 927

ammonia, urea, bilirubin, creatinine, uric acid, foreign substances such as drugs and environmental toxins

Front 928

Renal sinus includes

Back 928

Major and minor calyx, and renal pelvis

Front 929

Kidneys are encapsulated by a

Back 929

thin dense irregular connective tissue capsule

Front 930

Seven structures of the kidney

Back 930

1) Renal sinus
2) Hilus
3) Cortex
4) Medulla
5) Renal lobes
6) Medullary rays
7) Renal lobules

Front 931

The renal cortex contains (5)

Back 931

1. Renal corpuscles
2. proximal tubules
3. distal tubules
4. peritubular capillaries
5. medullary rays

Front 932

8-18 conical medullary pyramids whose bases abut the corex and apices (renal papillae) are located in the

Back 932

renal medulla

Front 933

Renal medulla contains (4)

Back 933

1) Medullary pyramids
2) collecting ducts
3) loops of Henle
4) vasa recta

Front 934

Renal papillae, cradled by a minor calyx, are perforated by openings of about

Back 934

20 collecting ducts

Front 935

Several minor calyces empty into a

Back 935

major calyx, which empties into the renal pelvis, which drains into the ureter.

Front 936

Portions of the renal cortex that extend between renal pyramids are called

Back 936

renal columns

Front 937

Each kidney has approximately how many lobes

Back 937

8-18

Front 938

Each renal lobe consists of

Back 938

a medullary pyramid and associated cortex and numerous renal lobules

Front 939

Medullary rays are what and are comprised of what?

Back 939

extensions of ,edullary tissue into the cortex. clusters of collecting tubules and ducts.

Front 940

One medullary ray occupies the center of each

Back 940

renal lobule

Front 941

Cortical material between medullary rays is know as the

Back 941

labyrinth

Front 942

Interlobular arteries and veins mark the borders between

Back 942

adjacent renal lobules

Front 943

highly convoluted structure that modified the fluid passing through it to form urine as it's final product

Back 943

uriniferous tubule

Front 944

Uriniferous tubule consists of two parts

Back 944

nephron and collecting tubule

Front 945

Approximately how many nephrons in each kidney

Back 945

1.3 million

Front 946

Several nephrons drain into a single

Back 946

collecting tubule

Front 947

multiple collecting tubules join in the deeper aspect of the medulla to form larger and larger

Back 947

collecting ducts

Front 948

Nephrons are located in the

Back 948

cortical labyrinth surrounding the ray

Front 949

# nephrons per collecting duct

Back 949

10

Front 950

Nephrons consist of 4 parts

Back 950

1) Renal corpuscle
2) Proximal tubule
3) Loop of Henle
4) Distal tubule

Front 951

Each renal corpuscle consists of (3)

Back 951

1) fenestrated capillaries
2) glomerulus
3) Bowman's capsule

Front 952

Bowman's capsule consists of what two layers

Back 952

Visceral and parietal

Front 953

The space between the visceral and parietal layers is known as

Back 953

Bowman's space

Front 954

The glomerulus is in intimate contact with which layer of Bowman's capsule

Back 954

visceral

Front 955

The glomerulus is supplied by 1) the short, straight ... and 2) drained by the ...

Back 955

1) afferent glomerular arteriole
2) efferent glomerular arteriole

Front 956

The renal corpuscles and proximal and distal tubules are located in the ... while the loops of Henle are located in the ...

Back 956

cortex
medulla

Front 957

Two types of nephrons are

Back 957

1) cortical nephrons
2) juxtamedullary nephrons

Front 958

Characteristics of cortical nephrons

Back 958

short, most common (86%), renal corpuscle in middle and outer portions of cortex, very short loop of Henle

Front 959

Characteristics of JM nephrons

Back 959

about 40 mm long, renal corpuscle is located in the cortex, but at the boundary of the cortex and medulla. Loop of Henle is long and projects into the medullary papilla

Front 960

Kidneys receive approximately what percent of resting cardiac output?

Back 960

20-25%

Front 961

Approximate output of kidneys per day

Back 961

1-2 liters

Front 962

A branch of the abdominal aorta, divides into anterior and posterior segmental branches

Back 962

Renal artery

Front 963

Arise from the branches of the renal arteries in the renal hilus and penetrate the columns between the pyramids

Back 963

Interlobar arteries

Front 964

Branches of interlobar arteries at the corticomedullary junction

Back 964

arcuate arteries which branch into interlobular arteries

Front 965

Interlobular arteries branch to form these which drain into these

Back 965

afferent arterioles
glomerular capillaries

Front 966

feeds the peritubular capillaries

Back 966

efferent arteriole

Front 967

Two capillary beds in the cortex connected by an arteriole

Back 967

efferent arteriole from renal corpuscle of cortical nephrons supply peritubular capillaries in the cortex.
efferent arteriole from juxtamedullary nephrons supply vasa recta in the medulla

Front 968

The descending vasa recta carry isotonic blood into the medulla but the blood

Back 968

loses water and picks up sodium as it passes deeper into the medulla

Front 969

Unlike the loop of Henle, the ascending vasa recta are

Back 969

permeable to salt and water.

Front 970

Passive exchange of salt and water between the vasa recta and the interstitium is known as the

Back 970

countercurrent exchange mechanism

Front 971

The countercurrent exchange mechanism is important in

Back 971

maintaining the osmotic gradient set up by the countercurrent multipler of Henle's loop

Front 972

Blood in the ascending vasa recta drains into the

Back 972

arcuate veins

Front 973

Blood leaves the kidney through a single

Back 973

renal vein and drains into the inferior vena cava

Front 974

There are no anastomoses between interlobar arteries or between arcuate arteries. This, these arteries are examples of

Back 974

end arteries

Front 975

Each kidney receives 10% of the total blood volume per minute with >90% of this going to the

Back 975

cortex

Front 976

All the blood that reaches the medulla has already passed through the

Back 976

cortex

Front 977

Erythropoietin is manufactured and released by endothelial cells of the

Back 977

peritubular capillary network

Front 978

Most renal nerves original in the

Back 978

celiac ganglion

Front 979

Renin secretion is enhanced by

Back 979

norepinephrine

Front 980

Norepinephrine binds to what receptors in the afferent arteriole to cause vasoconstriction?

Back 980

alpha-1-adrenergic

Front 981

The fluid within Bowman's capsule is called the

Back 981

glomerular filtrate

Front 982

Glomerular filtrate contains

Back 982

most inorganic ions and low molecular-weightorganic solutes (eg glucose and amino acids). Virtually no proteins and no cells.

Front 983

The composition of the glomerular filtrate is altered by two general processes

Back 983

tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.

Front 984

The tubule is all points intimately associated with the

Back 984

peritubular capillaries

Front 985

Glomerular capillaries lie between

Back 985

afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole

Front 986

In the glomerulus, blood filtering depends on three main pressures

Back 986

1) blood hydrostatic pressure (promotes filtration)
2) capsillar hydrostatic pressure (oppose filtration)
3) Blood colloid asmotic pressure (oppose filtration)

Front 987

Net filtration pressure is

Back 987

blood hydrostatic pressure minus capsular hydrostatic pressure and blood colloid osmotic pressure

Front 988

Parietal layer of Bowman's capsule is composed of what type of epithelium?

Back 988

simple squamous

Front 989

Visceral layer of Bowman's capsule is composed of

Back 989

podocytes

Front 990

Characteristics of podocytes

Back 990

long primary processes, interdigitate betweel glomerular capillaries. Slits between are covered by filtration slit diaphragm.

Front 991

Bowman's space contains

Back 991

urinary filtrate (not urine)

Front 992

What extends from the urinary pole of the renal corpuscle?

Back 992

proximal tubule

Front 993

What is the entrance of afferent and exit of efferent arterioles?

Back 993

Vascular pole

Front 994

The glomerular basement membrane is actually

Back 994

fused basal lamina (one central lamina densa sandwiched between two lamina rara.

Front 995

Lamina rara contain what proteoglycan

Back 995

heparan sulfate

Front 996

Lemina densa contains what collagen type?

Back 996

IR

Front 997

Glomerular basement membrane is the site of

Back 997

blood-urine barries in the kidney

Front 998

Space between pedicels (processes of podocytes) is called the

Back 998

filtration slit

Front 999

What links adjacent pedicels?

Back 999

filtration slit diaphragm

Front 1000

Sit in center of capillary loops, produce axial support for anastomosing glomerular capillaries. Sensitive to angiotensin II

Back 1000

Mesangial cells

Front 1001

Functions of mesangial cells

Back 1001

support of capillary loop system. Control blood flow through glomerular loops via angiotensin mechanism. Maintenance of glomerular basal lamina (phagocytosis of macromolecules lodged in GBM). Release and respond to growth factors. Able to divide

Front 1002

Begins at renal corpuscle's urinary pole. simple low columnar-to-cuboidal lining cells, tight junctions, brush border microvilli, basal infoldings.

Back 1002

proximal tubule

Front 1003

Reabsorption at the proximal tubule

Back 1003

100% of AA, glucose, small peptides, vitamins, HCO3-, 80% of sodium ions, 65% of water

Front 1004

Henle's loop: part which is permeable to salt and water

Back 1004

thin descending limb

Front 1005

Henle's loop: part which is impermeable to water

Back 1005

thick ascending limb

Front 1006

Extends from the proximal convoluted tubule in the cortex, dips into the medulla, and returns to the cortex where it empties into the distal convoluted tubule

Back 1006

Loop of Henle

Front 1007

Loop of Henle is a prerequisite for hypertonic urine and acts as a

Back 1007

countercurrent multiplier to establish an osmotic gradient in the interstitial fluid of the medulla

Front 1008

Tubular fluid delivered to the thin descending limb by the descending thick loop of Henle's loop is

Back 1008

isotonic, but proximal tubule reduces the volume from its raw state in Bowman's space

Front 1009

Maximum theoretical osmolarity is

Back 1009

1200 mOsm

Front 1010

Part of Henle's loop that has a more active role in setting up the gradient making medullary interstitium hypertonic

Back 1010

Ascending portion (impermeable to water). Contain Na/K/2Cl cotransporter in the apical membrane, which accounts for about 20% of the reabsorption of these ions from the tubular fluid.

Front 1011

Final segment of the nephron which lies in the cortex. Low cuboidal, no brush border. Folds of the basal plasma membrane

Back 1011

Distal tubule

Front 1012

Monitors MaCl concentration or flow rate of the tubular fluid

Back 1012

macula densa

Front 1013

Makes final adjustments of salt, water, and acid. Sensitive to aldosterone and ANP

Back 1013

distal convoluted tubule

Front 1014

Different embryologically from nephrons. Have distinct intercellular borders. Cuboidal in smaller tubules and columnar in larter ducts

Back 1014

Collecting ducts

Front 1015

Principle cells make up the

Back 1015

distal tubule

Front 1016

Helps to adjust pH in the collecting ducts

Back 1016

intercalated cells

Front 1017

Collecting ducts are under the influence of what hormone?

Back 1017

ADH

Front 1018

ADH causes

Back 1018

principle cells to become permeable to water through aquaporins.

Front 1019

Without ADH, urine is

Back 1019

hypotonic

Front 1020

Renal interstitium is

Back 1020

dense irregular collagenous connective tissue. Reticular and elastic fibers

Front 1021

Nerve fibers of the kidney are myelinated or unmyelinated

Back 1021

unmyelinated (sympathetic from the renal plexus)

Front 1022

papillary ducts are also known as the

Back 1022

ducts of Bellini

Front 1023

Area cribosa is the

Back 1023

sieve-like region near the ducts of Bellini

Front 1024

The portion of the apex of the pyramid that projects into the minor calyx is covered by

Back 1024

transitional epithelium (forms osmotic barrier that protects the surrounding tissues from the hypertonic urine and the urine from dilution)

Front 1025

Urine is propelling to the major calyx by

Back 1025

smooth muscle in lamina propria

Front 1026

In order to be filtered, a molecule must be

Back 1026

<69,000 daltons
not carry a high negative charge

Front 1027

Chief barrier to negatively charged macromolecules is

Back 1027

heparan sulfate

Front 1028

Hypertonicity of the medullary interstitium is due to

Back 1028

Na, Cl, and urea

Front 1029

Responds to hypoxia by releasing EPO

Back 1029

EPO-producing cell

Front 1030

Cells that respond to a decrease in renal arterial blood flow are

Back 1030

juxtaglomerular cells (release renin when blood volume is decreased)

Front 1031

Juxtaglomerular apparatus is located

Back 1031

near each renal corpuscle's vascular pole

Front 1032

Juxtaglomerular apparatus includes

Back 1032

juxtaglomerular cells, macula densa, and lacis cells (mesangial cells)

Front 1033

JG cells are

Back 1033

modified smooth muscle cells in the afferent arteriole's wall. Source of renin (proteolytic enzyme)

Front 1034

Angiotensis I is converted to angiotensin II by

Back 1034

angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs

Front 1035

function of angiotensin II

Back 1035

vasoconstrictor, increases blood pressure, stimulates aldosterone production by adrenal cortex thereby increasing Na+ and Cl- reabsorption by the distal tubule.

Front 1036

Angiotensin II inhibits

Back 1036

renin release

Front 1037

Lumen of ureters are lined by

Back 1037

transitional epithelium

Front 1038

Muscularis of ureters are

Back 1038

inner circular and outer longitudinal

Front 1039

Urinary bladder is composed of

Back 1039

transitional epithelium

Front 1040

During bladder distention, large round dome-shaped cells become stretched and change their morphology to become

Back 1040

flattened

Front 1041

These help to maintain strong cohesion between epithelials of bladder

Back 1041

Desmosomes

Front 1042

Reduce leakage in urinary bladder (form blood-urine barrier in the urinary bladder)

Back 1042

tight junctions

Front 1043

Triangular region of the bladder whose mucosa is always smooth

Back 1043

trigone

Front 1044

Muscularis of the bladder is also called the

Back 1044

detrusor muscle. Thin inner longitudinal, thick middle circular, thin outer longitudinal. Middle circular layer forms the internal sphincter.

Front 1045

Male urethra has 3 main parts

Back 1045

1) prostatic (transitional epi)
2) membranous (stratified columnar or pseudostratified epi) - skeletal muscle for external sphincter
3) penile (stratified columnar or pseudostratified. Patches of squamous)

Front 1046

Female urethra is

Back 1046

shorter. carries only urine. lined by stratified squamous with patches of pseudostratified columnar. External sphincter is formed by the urogenital diaphragm.

Front 1047

Starling equation

Back 1047

P(Filtration) = P(capillary) - P(interstitial) - pi(capillary) - pi(interstitial)

P = hydrostatic pressure
pi = oncotic pressure

Front 1048

Hydrostatic pressure in capillaries depend on constriction of

Back 1048

precapillary sphincters

Front 1049

Nephron includes

Back 1049

glomerulus, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule

Front 1050

Proximal tubule primarily absorbs

Back 1050

solutes and water

Front 1051

Loop of Henle

Back 1051

absorbs solute and aid further water absorption

Front 1052

distal tubule and collecting duct

Back 1052

control final solute absorption and contribute to acid/base balance.

Front 1053

The kidney has a portal system of what two capillary beds in series?

Back 1053

glomerular (high hydrostatic pressure) and peritubular capillaries (low hydrostatic pressure)

Front 1054

arteriole between the glomerular and pertubular capillaries

Back 1054

efferent arteriole

Front 1055

In the kidney, the filtered fluid has to pass through

Back 1055

the epithelium of the nephron before returning to the curculation

Front 1056

Net filtration in the glomerular capillaries is how much higher than the amount filtered by all other capillaries combined?

Back 1056

6 fold

Front 1057

Filtration rate per 100g tissue is how much more in the kidneys than the rest of the body?

Back 1057

10,000X

Front 1058

Glomerular filtrate passes through 3 layers

Back 1058

endothelium, basement membrane, and filtration slits.

Front 1059

Effective pore size of the glomerulus

Back 1059

3-5 nm

Front 1060

Rate-limiting barrier in filtration is formed by the

Back 1060

basement membrane

Front 1061

The presence of negatively charged proteoglycans (heparan sulfate) reduces the effective pore size for

Back 1061

anions

Front 1062

Forces driving filtration are the same as in systemic capillaries, except for the absence of a significant

Back 1062

oncotic pressure in Bowman's space

Front 1063

Oncotic pressure of the glomerular capillaries rises because of the increase in plasma protein concentration resulting from the large

Back 1063

filtration fraction

Front 1064

What percent of water is removed in glomerular capillaries? Systemic capillaries?

Back 1064

20%
<0.1%

Front 1065

Glomerular filtration rate is determined by

Back 1065

hydraulic conductivity, area, hydrostatic pressure of capillaries, hydrostatic pressure of Bowman's space, and oncotic pressure of capillaries

Front 1066

2 ways filtration pressure can be increased

Back 1066

1) lowering the resistance of the afferent arteriole
2) increasing the resistance of the efferent arteriole

Front 1067

The low permeability of the tight junction enables tight epithelia to maintain

Back 1067

large gradients of ion concentration and osmolarity

Front 1068

A specific inhibitor of Na/K pumps, which blocks fluid absorption across renal tubule cells. (Can also be blocked by lowering temperature)

Back 1068

ouabain

Front 1069

The primary driving force of fluid reabsorption is

Back 1069

active Na+ absorption

Front 1070

Transport of Na+ requres

Back 1070

uptake across the apical membrane AND extrusion across the basolateral membrane

Front 1071

Sugars, amino acids, peptides, phosphate, carboxylic acids are cotransported using

Back 1071

Na+ gradient created by Na/K pumps

Front 1072

In proximal tubule cells, glucose is taken up by

Back 1072

Na+:monosaccharide cotransporters (SGLT2) which can be inhibited by phlorizin.

Front 1073

Normal glucose plasma concentration

Back 1073

5mM

Front 1074

Renal threshold for glucose

Back 1074

10mM

Front 1075

Renal diabetes mellitus is characterized by

Back 1075

glucosuria despite normal plasma glucose levels

Front 1076

Renal diabetes mellitus is a reduced ability

Back 1076

to absorb glucose in the proximal tubule

Front 1077

The thick ascending limb of Henle's loop actively absorbs

Back 1077

Cl- (through Na+:K+:2Cl-cotransporters and K+channels). Na absorption through paracellular pathways. Driving force through Na+/K+ pump.

Front 1078

Na+:K+:2Cl- cotransporter can be inhibited by

Back 1078

furosemide (Lasix)

Front 1079

The thick ascending limbs are impermeable to

Back 1079

water (resulting in marked hypotonicity of the tubular fluid). Refered to as the diluting segment.

Front 1080

Na+ reabsorption in the early distal tubule proceeds bia

Back 1080

electroneutral Na+:Cl--cotransporters. Inhibited by thiazide diuretics.

Front 1081

Na+ absorption in the late distal tubule and collecting duct is

Back 1081

electrogenic, involving apical membrane Na+ channels.

Front 1082

Two types of cells are present in the colecting duct

Back 1082

Principle cells and intercalated cells

Front 1083

These cells actively absorb Na+ and secrete K+

Back 1083

Principle cells

Front 1084

These cells secrete hydrogen ions or bicarbonate, depending on acid-base status

Back 1084

intercalated cells

Front 1085

Na+ reabsorption by the principle cells is inhibited by

Back 1085

amiloride (block apical Na+ channels)

Front 1086

Absorption of Na+ in the late distal tubule and collecting duct is regulated by

Back 1086

aldosterone (stimulates Na+ transport by increasing the number of Na+ channels and Na+/K+ pumps)

Front 1087

Sustained plasma pH outside of this range is incompatible with life.

Back 1087

7.0-7.8

Front 1088

90% of bicarbonate is reabsorbed in the

Back 1088

proximal tubule (with the remaining absorbed in the late distal tubule and collecting duct)

Front 1089

Bicarbonate absorption in intercalated cells is driven by

Back 1089

proton pumps in the apical membrane, which create a large pH gradient between the cell and tubule lumen.

Front 1090

Exit of bicarbonate across the basolateral membrane is mediated by an

Back 1090

anion exchanger

Front 1091

pH of the final urine reaches values as low as

Back 1091

4.5

Front 1092

Normal production of nonvolatile acids in the body

Back 1092

60 millimoles

Front 1093

For human plasma,
1) pK' = ?
2) [HCO3-] = ?
3) Pco2 = ?
4) Solubility coefficient of CO2

Back 1093

1) 6.1
2) 24mM
3) 40 mmHg
4) 0.03 mM/mmHg

Front 1094

pH of normal blood plasma is

Back 1094

7.40

Front 1095

Metabolic acid/base disorders

Back 1095

ketoacidosis (diabetes)
lacticacidosis (exercise, hypoxia)
bulemia (alkalosis)

Front 1096

Respiratory acid/base disorders

Back 1096

COPD (acidosis)
hyperventilation (alkalosis)

Front 1097

Step 1 - Determine if the blood is alkaline or acid

Back 1097

Normal range is 7.38-7.42

Front 1098

Step 2 - Determine if the main disorder is respiratory or metabolic.

Back 1098

If pH INVERSES pCO2, then it's respiratory
If pH FOLLOWS pCO2, then it's metabolic.

Front 1099

Step 3 - ONLY FOR RESPIRATORY - is it acute or chronic?

Back 1099

(acute) dpH = 0.08 (Pco2 - 40)/10
(chronic) dpH = 0.03 (Pco2 - 40)/10

Front 1100

Steps 4,5,6 are for

Back 1100

METABOLIC ONLY

Front 1101

Step 4 - Determine nature of a metabolic acidosis by calculating anion gap

Back 1101

anion gap = [Na] - [Cl] - [HCO3-]

Front 1102

Normal value for [Na]

Back 1102

140 mM

Front 1103

Normal value for [Cl]

Back 1103

104 mM

Front 1104

Normal value for [HCO3]

Back 1104

24 mM

Front 1105

Normal anion gap

Back 1105

12+-2 mM

Front 1106

Step 5 - Is the respiratory compensation of a metabolic disorder appropriate?

Back 1106

Pco2 (normal range) = [1.5(HCO3-)]+(8+-2)

Front 1107

Step 6 - Does the anion gap explain the whole dHCO3-?

Back 1107

Normal HCO3- = 24mM => HCO3-(actual) + (AG-12)

Front 1108

Default phenotypic sexual development is

Back 1108

femail

Front 1109

Two functions of the ovaries

Back 1109

gametogenesis and steroidogenesis

Front 1110

Production of gametes (female) is called

Back 1110

oogenesis

Front 1111

Developing gametes (female) are called

Back 1111

oocytes

Front 1112

Mature gametes (female) are called

Back 1112

ova

Front 1113

These hormones promote growth and maturation of the internal and external sex organs (female) and are responsible for the female secondary sexual characteristics that develop at puberty.

Back 1113

Estrogens (17-beta-estradiol, estrone, estriol)

Front 1114

Estrogens and progesterone both work on

Back 1114

brests (Progesterone -> Alveoli, Estrogen -> Ducts)

Front 1115

Prepare the internal sex organs, mainly the uterus, for pregnancy by promoting secretory changes in the endometrium. Also prepares the mammary gland for lactation by promoting proliferation of the mammary gland alveoli

Back 1115

Progesterone

Front 1116

The surface epithelium covering the ovaries is called the

Back 1116

germinal epithelium (low cuboidal)

Front 1117

Directly beneath if germinal epithelium is the

Back 1117

tunica albuginea. Poorly vascularized, dense irregular collagenous capsule. No septae or trabeculae.

Front 1118

The primordial germ cells are derived from

Back 1118

endoderm

Front 1119

This gives rise to almost three fourths of all ovarian tumors

Back 1119

germinal epithelium

Front 1120

True or False. The ovary has no ducts.

Back 1120

True

Front 1121

The ovary consists of three regions

Back 1121

Cortex, Medulla, Hilus

Front 1122

The most prominent cortical structures are

Back 1122

oocyte-containing ovarian follicles

Front 1123

Contains loose connective tissue, a mass of relatively large coiled blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Ovarian follicles are absent.

Back 1123

Medulla

Front 1124

Provide the microenvironment for the developing oocyte

Back 1124

ovarian follicles

Front 1125

Early stages of oogenesis occur during fetal life when mitotic divisions massively increase the number of

Back 1125

oogonia

Front 1126

The oocytes present at birth remain arrested in development at the

Back 1126

first meiotic division (dictyotene stage of meiosis I).

Front 1127

True or False. There are no new oocytes after birth.

Back 1127

True

Front 1128

Most of the 400,000 primary oocytes present at menarche do not complete maturation and are gradually lost through

Back 1128

atresia

Front 1129

atresia is mediated by

Back 1129

apoptosis of cells surrounding the oocyte

Front 1130

Everything in the ovary is derived from ... except for oocytes which is derived from ...

Back 1130

mesoderm
endoderm

Front 1131

Follicular cells are derived from

Back 1131

mesothelial epithelium

Front 1132

Primary oocyte is derived from

Back 1132

endoderm

Front 1133

Primordial follicles are composed of a single layer of

Back 1133

squamous follicular cells that surround the primary oocyte

Front 1134

Primordial follicles are separated from the ovarian stroma by a

Back 1134

basement membrane

Front 1135

Organelles of the oocyte include

Back 1135

single nucleolus, numerous mitochondria, abundant Golgi, rER but with few ribosomes, occasional annulate lamellae.

Front 1136

The nucleus of the primary oocyte becomes suspended in meiosis at the

Back 1136

diplotene stage of the first meiotic division. The suspended state is called dictyotene.

Front 1137

The nucleus of the primary oocyte contains

Back 1137

46 chromosomes (4N)

Front 1138

The flattened follicular cells completely surround the primary oocyte and are attached to each other by

Back 1138

desmosomes, gap junctions. NO TIGHT JUNCTIONS.

Front 1139

A follicle with only a single layer of cuboidal follicular cells encircling the oocyte

Back 1139

unilaminar primary follicle

Front 1140

A follicle with several layers of cells around the primary oocyte

Back 1140

multilaminar primary follicle (granulosa cells, collectively form the stratum granulosum, an avascular epithelium)

Front 1141

Grows to about 100 to 150 micrometers in diameter with an enlarged nucleus. Several Golgi, rER becomes rich with ribosomes, free ribosomes are abundant, and mitochondria are numerous. Numerous cortical granules containing hydrolytic enzymes are located in the oocyte's cytoplasm just below the plasma membrane

Back 1141

primary oocyte

Front 1142

Proliferative activity of granulosa cells is due to

Back 1142

activin, produced by the primary oocyte

Front 1143

An amorphous substance which separates the oocyte from the surrounding follicular cells, composed of three different glycoproteins, ZP1, ZP2, and ZP3

Back 1143

zona pellucida

Front 1144

Serves as the sperm receptor

Back 1144

ZP3

Front 1145

Oocyte and follicular cells communicated with each other through

Back 1145

gap junctions formed between microvilli of oocyte and filopodia of the follicular cells

Front 1146

Stromal cells begin to be organized around the multilaminar primary follicle, formin an inner

Back 1146

theca interna, composed mostly of a richly vascularized cellular layer

Front 1147

The theca cells produce an angiogenesis factor that promotes

Back 1147

development of blood vessels

Front 1148

The cells composing the theca interna posses

Back 1148

LH receptors in their plasma membranes

Front 1149

Theca interna cells produce

Back 1149

androstenedione which enters the granulosa cells, where it is converted by the enzyme cytochrome P450 aromatase into estradiol

Front 1150

Several intercellular spaces develop within the mass of granulosa cells and become filled with a fluid known as

Back 1150

follicular fluid

Front 1151

Once a multilaminar primary follicle displays the presence of follicular fluid, it is known as a

Back 1151

secondary follicle

Front 1152

Granulosa cells develop plasma membrane receptors for

Back 1152

FSH

Front 1153

Continued proliferation of the granulosa cells of the secondary follicle depends of

Back 1153

FSH released by basophils of the anterior pituitary

Front 1154

As more fluid is produced, individual droplets of follicular fluid coalesce to form a signle, fluid-filled chamber called

Back 1154

the antrum

Front 1155

7 layers of a mature Graafian follicle

Back 1155

1) theca externa
2) theca interna
3) antrum
4) stratum granulosum
5) primary oocyte
6) cumulus oophorus
7) corona radiata

Front 1156

These follicles undergo ovulation, with a diameter reaching 15-20 mm

Back 1156

Graafian follicles

Front 1157

Small group of granulosa cells that project out from the wall into the fluid-filled antrum that surrounds the oocyte is known as the

Back 1157

cumulus oophorus

Front 1158

Single layer of granulosa cells that immediately surrounds the primary oocyte is called the

Back 1158

corona radiata

Front 1159

Continued formation of liquor folliculi causes the cumulus oophorus composed of the primary oocyte, the corona radiata, and associated follicular cells to become

Back 1159

detached from its base to float freely within the liquor folliculi.

Front 1160

Each menstrual cycle stimulates approximately how many follicles?

Back 1160

20-40

Front 1161

FSH from the anterior pituitary binds to

Back 1161

granulosa cells

Front 1162

granulosa cells are stimulated to

Back 1162

divide, form cytochrome p450 aromatase, which converts androstenedione to estradiol, stimulate gap junction and LH receptor formation

Front 1163

LH from the anterior pituitary binds to receptors on the

Back 1163

theca interna cells

Front 1164

Theca interna cells form

Back 1164

androstenedione, which diffuses across the basement membrane of the follicle into granulosa cells where it is converted to estradiol

Front 1165

Estrogen synthesis by ovarian follicles involves two cell types

Back 1165

theca interna cells and granulosa cells

Front 1166

Effects of estradiol in the ovary (2)

Back 1166

1) increase mitosis of granulosa cells
2) stimulates formation of LH receptors on granulosa cells

Front 1167

Estradiol is carried to the anterior pituitary where it increases its sensitivity to

Back 1167

GnRH, which results in the LH surge that induces ovulation.

Front 1168

The LH surge causes (3)

Back 1168

1) release of meiosis-inducing substance (maturation promoting substance)
2) MIS(MPS) causes the Graafian follicle to complete its first meiotic division, resulting in secondary oocyte and first polar body
3) Newly formed secondary oocyte enters the second meiotic division and is arrested in metaphase

Front 1169

The process of releasing the secondary oocyte from the Graafian follicle is known as

Back 1169

ovulation

Front 1170

By the 14th day of menstruation, elevated blood estrogens cause (2)

Back 1170

1) Negative feedback inhibition shuts off FSH release by the anterior pituitary
2) Surge of LH released by basophils of the anterior pituitary

Front 1171

Several hours prior to ovulation, 7 things occur

Back 1171

1) Cumulus mass breaks up
2) Primary oocyte becomes secondary oocyte
3) Follicular fluid accumulates in the antrum, but NO increase in pressure.
4) Increased blood flow to ovaries results in edema (histamine, prostaglandins, and collagenase released near follicle)
5) Surface of ovary near follicle loses blood supply (stigma)
6) Connective tissue at stigma degenerates
7) Stigma ruptures releasing secondary oocyte and cumulus mass into oviduct

Front 1172

Ovulation is always on the

Back 1172

14th day BEFORE the BEGINNING of menstruation

Front 1173

Luteinization is the convertion of

Back 1173

remnants of the Graafian follicle into the corpus hemorrhagicum then into the corpus luteum.

Front 1174

Stages of fertilization and time frames

Back 1174

1) Fertilization (24-48 hours after ovulation)
2) Morula in uterine cavity (2-3 days after fertilization)
3) Implantation (6-7 days after fertilization)

Front 1175

Corpus hemorrhagicum is the

Back 1175

remainder of the Graafian follicle plus blood clot

Front 1176

Blood clot is removed from the corpus hemorrhagicum and LH converts it into

Back 1176

corpus luteum

Front 1177

Corpus luteum functions as an

Back 1177

endocrine gland

Front 1178

Corpus luteum is composed of

Back 1178

granulosa lutein cells (modified granulosa cells) and theca lutein cells (modified theca interna cells)

Front 1179

80% of the cell population of the corpus luteum

Back 1179

granulosa lutein cells

Front 1180

Granulosa lutein cells mostly produce

Back 1180

progesterone and convert androgens produced by the theca lutein cells into estrogens

Front 1181

Progesterone stimulates growth and secretory activity of the

Back 1181

uterine endometrium, preparing it for implantation.

Front 1182

The theca interna cells become modified into hormone-secreting cells known as

Back 1182

theca lutein cells

Front 1183

Theca lutein cells specialize in the production of

Back 1183

estrogens (some progesterone and androgens)

Front 1184

Progesterone and estrogens inhibit the secretion of

Back 1184

LH and FSH (prevents second ovulation)

Front 1185

If pregnancy, hCG maintains the corpus luteum for 3 months. hCG is secreted by the

Back 1185

placenta

Front 1186

If pregnancy does not occur, absence of hCG leads to degeneration of the

Back 1186

corpus luteum

Front 1187

Inherent lifespan of the corpus luteum

Back 1187

14 days

Front 1188

Corpus luteum is invaded by fibroblasts, becomes fibrotic, ceases to function, undergoes luteolysis and is phagocytosed by macrophages. Fibrous connective tissue forms in its place and is known as the

Back 1188

corpus albicans

Front 1189

Once a single mature follicle ruptures and releases its secondary oocyte and associated cells, the remaining follicles

Back 1189

undergo atresia and the resulting atretic follicles are eventually phagocytized by macrophages

Front 1190

Of all of the follicles present in the ovaries at menarche, what percentage develop to maturity and undergo ovulation?

Back 1190

0.1-0.2%

Front 1191

Last structure to be broken down during atresia

Back 1191

zona pellucida

Front 1192

The incidence of atresia is greatest in the

Back 1192

least mature follicles

Front 1193

The medulla of the premenstrual ovary has interstitial cells that secrete ... and hilus cells that secrete ...

Back 1193

estrogens
androgens

Front 1194

Oviducts are suspended by a thin mesentery known as the

Back 1194

mesosalpinx

Front 1195

Mesosalpinx is derived from the

Back 1195

broad ligament

Front 1196

4 regions of the oviduct

Back 1196

1) infundibulum (with fimbriae)
2) ampulla (site of fertilization)
3) isthmus
4) intramural part (within the wall of uterus)

Front 1197

Lumen of the oviduct is lined by

Back 1197

simple columnar epithelium (some ciliated, some secretory)

Front 1198

2 cells founds in the oviduct epithelium

Back 1198

1) Ciliated cells - beat towards uterus
2) Peg cells - secretes nutrition for sperm and ovum

Front 1199

Muscularis of oviduct (inner circular and outer longitudinal) propel oocyte via

Back 1199

peristaltic waves of contraction

Front 1200

Greatest amount of oviduct folding is in the

Back 1200

ampulla

Front 1201

Estrogen affects the oviduct and causes changes such ash

Back 1201

increased coliogenesis, secretory activity and height of the lining epithelial cells.

Front 1202

3 parts of the uterus

Back 1202

body, fundus, cervix

Front 1203

uterine wall of body and fundus is composed of

Back 1203

endometrium (serosa), myometrium (muscularis), and either adventitia or serosa

Front 1204

Outer serous layer or visceral peritoneum covering the uterus

Back 1204

perimetrium

Front 1205

Thicked subcompartment of the wall of the uterus

Back 1205

myometrium

Front 1206

Myometrial layers

Back 1206

Outer and inner longitudinal, plus richly vascular middle layer of circular (house arcuate arteries).

Front 1207

At the cervix, the myometrium is composed of

Back 1207

dense irregular connective tissue containing elastic fibers

Front 1208

Size and number of the myometrial muscle cells are related to

Back 1208

estrogen levels

Front 1209

Luminal surface of the endometrium is composed of

Back 1209

simple columnar (ciliated and nonciliated secretory)

Front 1210

In the endometrium, the epithelium forms simple tubular glands that invaginate the endometrial stroma and extend as far as

Back 1210

the myometrium

Front 1211

The structure of the endometrial glands vary as the endometrium pass through the phases of

Back 1211

the menstrual cycle

Front 1212

Subdivisions of the endometrium

Back 1212

stratum functionalis - structural changes during menstruation (lost)
stratum basalis - unaffected by menstruation (cell source)

Front 1213

Dual blood supply of the endometrium

Back 1213

Spiral arteries - supply functional layer
straight arteries - supply basal layer

Front 1214

The presence of endometrial tissue in the pelvis or in the peritoneal cavity is known as

Back 1214

endometriosis

Front 1215

Cervical canal lined by

Back 1215

mucus-secreting simple columnar epithelium

Front 1216

Cervical glands may become blocked and form

Back 1216

Nabothian cysts (not pathological)

Front 1217

This luteal hormone induces lysis of collagen in the cervical walls during parturition.

Back 1217

relaxin

Front 1218

During menstruation, cervical epithelium is

Back 1218

unaffected. However, mucus consistency changes during the cycle.

Front 1219

Cervical mucus is water, serous fluid during

Back 1219

proliferative phase

Front 1220

Cervical mucus is more viscous during

Back 1220

secretory phase and pregnancy

Front 1221

Hormone that regulates the changes in the viscosity of the cervical gland secretions

Back 1221

Progesterone

Front 1222

Abrupt transition between simple columnar and stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium at the

Back 1222

cervical-vaginal junction

Front 1223

Cervical carcinoma develops from

Back 1223

stratified squamous epithelium of the cervix

Front 1224

Three phases of the menstrual cycle

Back 1224

1) Proliferative - secretion of estrogen by growing follicles. Corresponds to follicular phase of the ovary
2) Secretory - secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum. Corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovary
3) Menstrual - decreased hormone production and decline in the corpus luteum.

Front 1225

Proliferative phase

Back 1225

days 5-14 (most variable). Functional layer becomes much thicker (MITOSIS of the surface endometrial epithelium and stroma).

Front 1226

During the proliferative, glycogen accumulates

Back 1226

in the basal cytoplasm of the glandular epithelial cells

Front 1227

Ovulation occurs on day

Back 1227

14 of a 28 day cycle

Front 1228

The secretory phase

Back 1228

(days 15-24) begins the day after ovulation and is less variable in duration. Divided into early and late stage. Corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovary.

Front 1229

The uterus is prepared for implantation during the

Back 1229

Early secretory phase

Front 1230

Most of the increase of the endometrium in the secretory phase is due to

Back 1230

edema

Front 1231

During early secretory phase, endometrial glands have a

Back 1231

tortuous SACCULATED appearance, due to the accumulation of secretions.

Front 1232

In the early secretory phase, glycogen accumulates in the glandular epithelial cells

Back 1232

basal cytoplasm, but then shifts to the apical cytoplasm.

Front 1233

Late secretory (premenstrual) phase

Back 1233

(day 25-28) AKA ischemic phase. Endometrium shrinks due to loss of interstitial fluid. Blow flow is impaired causing necrosis of the functional layer

Front 1234

Menstrual phase

Back 1234

(days 1-4). Reduced levels of progesterone and estrogen.

Front 1235

During menstruation, approximately how much blood is lost?

Back 1235

35mL

Front 1236

Vaginal discharge during menstruation consists of

Back 1236

blood, uterine fluid, and sloughing stromal and epithelial cells from the stratum functionalis.

Front 1237

Blood clotting during menstruation is inhibited by

Back 1237

fibrinolysin

Front 1238

Disintegration of the endometrium appears to be the result of impairment of its blood supply that is closely related to

Back 1238

decreased progesterone secretion by the degenerating corpus luteum

Front 1239

A solid mass of ~16 cells

Back 1239

morula

Front 1240

hollow ball of cells

Back 1240

blastocyst

Front 1241

Outer layer of trophoblast (fetal tissue)

Back 1241

syncytiotrophoblast

Front 1242

Function of syncytiotrophoblast

Back 1242

exchanges between maternal and fetal blood must occur across it

Front 1243

Simple cuboidal epithelium deep to the syncytiotrophoblast. Dividing cells of this contribute to the overlying syncytiotrophoblast

Back 1243

cytotrophoblast

Front 1244

Region of the chorion which is the fetal component of the placenta is called the

Back 1244

chorion frondosum

Front 1245

The layer of the placenta from which the villi project is called the

Back 1245

chorionic plate

Front 1246

Maternal blood flows through the intervillous spaces, and the blood is in contact with the

Back 1246

surface of villi (fetal villi-maternal blood interface)

Front 1247

Villi anchored to the decidua basalis are called

Back 1247

anchoring villi

Front 1248

Villi suspended in maternal blood of the lacunae are known as

Back 1248

free villi

Front 1249

Formed by the syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast and associated connective tissue

Back 1249

chorion

Front 1250

Placental villi arise from the

Back 1250

chorionic plate

Front 1251

Between the myometrium and developing embryo

Back 1251

decidua basalis

Front 1252

Exchange of gases and metabolites occurs between fetal and maternal blood across the

Back 1252

placental barrier (sinusoidal capillaries, no tight junctions, no paracellular route)

Front 1253

Cells and layers across which material must be transported (6)

Back 1253

1) syncytiotrophoblast
2) cytotrophoblast
3) basal lamina of the trophoblast
4) connective tissue of the villus
5) basal lamina of the placental capillary
6) endothelium of the capillary

Front 1254

Molecules that passively diffuse across placenta

Back 1254

O2, CO2, fatty acids, steroids, electrolytes

Front 1255

Molecules that diffuse by facilitation across placenta

Back 1255

glucose

Front 1256

Molecules that are actively transported across the placenta

Back 1256

amino acids

Front 1257

Molecules that cross the placenta by receptor-mediated endocytosis

Back 1257

Insulin, IgG

Front 1258

Other molecules that can cross the placental barrier

Back 1258

viruses (rubella, HIV), alcohol, drugs

Front 1259

Placental hormones

Back 1259

hCG, progesterone, estrogens (with fetoplacental unit), human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) - growth-promoting and lactogenic hormone, human chorionic thyrotropin (hCT), relaxin, leptin

Front 1260

decidual cells enlarge and synthesize

Back 1260

prolactin and prostaglandins

Front 1261

Mucous tissue in the umbilical cord is referred to as

Back 1261

Wharton's jelly

Front 1262

Vaginal epithelium

Back 1262

stratified squamous nonkeratinized (langerhans cells present). Accumulate glycogen under the influence of estrogens.

Front 1263

Lactic acid in the vagina is formed by

Back 1263

vaginal bacterial flora

Front 1264

True or False. Vagina does not contain any glands.

Back 1264

True

Front 1265

Sexual stimulation increases vaginal secretions which is

Back 1265

derived from transudate from thin-walled veins in the lamina propria combined with secretions from cervical glands.

Front 1266

Vaginal muscularis consists of

Back 1266

inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle, and a ring of skeletal muscle circles the opening of the vagina.

Front 1267

The vestibule between the labia minora receives secretions of the

Back 1267

Bartholin glands

Front 1268

True or False. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.

Back 1268

True

Front 1269

There are 15-20 lobes in each gland and each lobe opens onto the apex of the nipple via

Back 1269

a lactiferous duct

Front 1270

Dilated lactiferous duct for milk storage

Back 1270

lactiferous sinus

Front 1271

Promotes the development of mammary ducts

Back 1271

estrogens

Front 1272

Promotes the development of secretory alveoli

Back 1272

progesterone

Front 1273

Milk contains

Back 1273

minerals, electrolytes, carbohydrates (including lactose), IgA, proteins (including caseins), and lipids

Front 1274

Two types of breast cancer

Back 1274

ductal carcinoma (80-90%) and lobular carcinoma

Front 1275

Milk ejection reflex is stimulated by (3)

Back 1275

1) mechanical stimulation (afferent impulses to hypothalamus)
2) Oxytocin (contraction of myoepithelial cells)
3) Prolactin (production of milk)

Front 1276

Lipids in milk are secreted by

Back 1276

apocrine secretion

Front 1277

Proteins in milk are secreted by

Back 1277

merocrine secretion

Front 1278

interstitial cells of Leydig secrete

Back 1278

androgens (especially testosterone)

Front 1279

conversion of testosterone to DHT occurs via

Back 1279

5-alpha-reductase

Front 1280

Sertoli cells secrete

Back 1280

inhibin and androgen-binding hormone

Front 1281

Extension of the peritoneum carried through the inguinal canal by the descending testis which covers the anteriolateral surface of the testes.

Back 1281

tunica vaginalis

Front 1282

thick fibrous capsule of dense irregular collagenous connective tissue with some smooth muscle while covers the testis

Back 1282

tunica albuginea

Front 1283

The tunica albuginea thickens around the posterior side to form the

Back 1283

mediastinum testis

Front 1284

The inner surface of the capsule is a thin vascular loose connective tissue layer called the

Back 1284

tunica vasculosa

Front 1285

Each lobule of the testis contains 1-4 highly coiled

Back 1285

seminiferous tubules (each 30-70cm in length). In total about 0.3 miles of tubule dedicated to sperm production.

Front 1286

loose connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules contains small clusters of

Back 1286

interstitial cells of Leydig (plus fenestrated and lymphatic capillaries)

Front 1287

stratified epithelium surrounding the seminiferous tubules

Back 1287

seminiferous epithelium

Front 1288

true epithelial cells of the seminiferous tubules

Back 1288

sertoli cells

Front 1289

Everything in the testis is derived from mesoderm except

Back 1289

germ cells (endoderm)

Front 1290

Germ cell differentiation

Back 1290

Spermatogonia->primary spermatocytes->secondary spermatocytes->spermatid->sperm

Front 1291

Sertoli cells are resistant to

Back 1291

heat,x-rays,infection and malnutrition

Front 1292

Most numerous epithelial cells before puberty

Back 1292

Sertoli cells

Front 1293

Tall columnar epithelial cells that line the lumen of the seminiferous tubule

Back 1293

Sertoli cells

Front 1294

Sertoli cells have plasma membrane receptors for

Back 1294

FSH

Front 1295

Sertoli-germ cell junctions

Back 1295

desmosomes

Front 1296

Sertoli-basal lamina junctions

Back 1296

hemidesmosomes

Front 1297

Sertoli-Sertoli junctions

Back 1297

Gap and tight junctions

Front 1298

Difference in Sertoli-Sertoli tight junctions from regular tight junctions

Back 1298

independent of the zonula adherens, includes more than 50 parallel fusion lines in adjacent membranes, stimulated by FSH.

Front 1299

Sertoli-Sertoli tight junctions setup 2 compartments

Back 1299

1) Basal - cell are in mitosis and early stage of meiosis
2) Adluminal - meiosis and spermiogenesis (primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids are restricted to this compartment)

Front 1300

"Passing through" tight junctions by the primary spermatocytes is accomplished by

Back 1300

a tight junction forming on the basal side of the spermatocyte while the apical tight junction breaks down.

Front 1301

Sertoli-Sertoli tight junctions also form

Back 1301

blood-testis barrier

Front 1302

The adluminal compartment contains a high concentration of

Back 1302

ABP (and therefore testosterone). Important for gamete development.

Front 1303

Functions of Sertoli cells

Back 1303

1) Blood-testis barrier
2) Supporting cells - metabolic exchange medium for germ cells
3) Phagocytic - residual bodies and failed germ cells
4) Exocrine (testicular fluid, transferrin, ABP) and endocrine (inhibin, anti-mullerian hormone in embryo)

Front 1304

True or False. Prior to puberty, only spermatogonia exist.

Back 1304

True

Front 1305

Meiosis begins...

Back 1305

at puberty

Front 1306

The process of producing sperm requires

Back 1306

FSH, LH, prolactin, testosterone. 64 days

Front 1307

Three phases of spermatogenesis

Back 1307

1) spermatogonial phase (spermatocytogenesis)
2) spermatocyte phase (meiosis)
3) spermatid phase (spermiogenesis)

Front 1308

What germ layer are spermatogonia derived from?

Back 1308

Endoderm

Front 1309

Three types of spermatogonia

Back 1309

1) Type A dark spermatogonia (reserve cells)
2) Type A pale spermatogonia (replicating population)
3) Type B spermatogonia

Front 1310

Type A dark cells can give rise to

Back 1310

Type A dark and type A pale cells (self-renewing)

Front 1311

Type A pale cells are

Back 1311

true stem cells induced by testosterone (ABP) to proliferate

Front 1312

Type A pale cells produced from the division of a type A dark cell remains

Back 1312

attached to one another by a cytoplasmic bridge (likewise with daughters of subsequent mitosis)

Front 1313

After several divisions, type A pale cells differential into

Back 1313

type B cells

Front 1314

Type B cells are

Back 1314

progenitor cells (non-self-renewing), differentiate into primary spermatocytes.

Front 1315

haploid number of primary spermatocyte

Back 1315

4N

Front 1316

Primary spermatocytes remain in the

Back 1316

adluminal compartment

Front 1317

DNA composition of type A pale spermatogonia

Back 1317

46 (2N)

Front 1318

DNA composition of type B spermatogonia

Back 1318

46 (4N)

Front 1319

DNA composition of primary spermatocyte after first meiotic division

Back 1319

23 (2N)

Front 1320

DNA composition of secondary spermatocyte after second meiotic division

Back 1320

23 (1N)

Front 1321

Process by which early spermatids differentiate into late spermatids

Back 1321

spermiogenesis

Front 1322

During the transformation of spermatids into sperm

Back 1322

accumulate hydrolytic enzymes, rearrange and reduce the number of organelles, form flagella, shed some cytoplasm

Front 1323

4 phases of spermiogenesis

Back 1323

1) Golgi phase
2) cap phase
3) acrosomal phase
4) maturation phase

Front 1324

Where to morphological changes of spermatids occur?

Back 1324

while the spermatids are embedded in invaginations of the luminal surface of the Sertoli cells

Front 1325

During the golgi phase, hydrolytic enzymes are formed in the

Back 1325

rough ER, modified by Golgi, packaged by trans-golgi->small, membrane bound, PAS-positive granules called proacrosomal granules

Front 1326

What determines the anterior pole in the developing sperm?

Back 1326

acrosomal vesicle

Front 1327

The cap phase of spermiogenesis is characterized by

Back 1327

the formation of the acrosomal cap, and the migration of the paired centrioles from the juxtanuclear region to the newly established posterior pole of the spermatid where it initiates synthesis of the axoneme of the flagellum.

Front 1328

During the acrosomal phase

Back 1328

the spermatid reorients itself so that the head points toward the basal lamina of the seminiferous tubule. The centrioles return to attach to the posterior nucleus, and form the neck of the spermatid.

Front 1329

The maturation phase of spermiogenesis is characterized by

Back 1329

pinching off of the excess cytoplasm as residual bodies that are phagocytized by Sertoli cells. The cytoplasmic bridges that have characterized the developing gametes since the type A pale spermatogonia remain with the residual bodies.

Front 1330

The mature spermatids are released from the surface of the Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule which is a process known as

Back 1330

spermiation (100 million per day per testis)

Front 1331

The middle piece of the sperm tail is filled with

Back 1331

mitochondria

Front 1332

The acrosome covers the anterior two-thirds of the nucleus. The acrosome is a highly specialized

Back 1332

lysozome.

Front 1333

The acrosome contains enzymes including

Back 1333

hyaluronidase, acid phosphatase, and a trypsin-like protease known as acrosin.

Front 1334

Binding of a sperm to the 1)... molecule of the zona pellucida triggers the 2)

Back 1334

1) ZP3
2) acrosomal reaction

Front 1335

Transport of the newly released sperm (nonmotile)

Back 1335

seminiferous tubules->straight tubules->rete testis->efferent ductules->epididymal duct.

Front 1336

Most of the fluid secreted in the seminiferous tubules is reabsorbed in the

Back 1336

efferent ductules

Front 1337

Sperm develop motility as they poass through the 4-5 meters of the highly coiled

Back 1337

epididymal duct

Front 1338

Sperm are propelled to the distal portion of the epididymal duct by

Back 1338

peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle that surrounds the efferent ductules

Front 1339

Where are sperm stored before ejaculation?

Back 1339

distal portion of the epididymal duct

Front 1340

Mature sperm can live for ... in the male genital duct system

Back 1340

several weeks

Front 1341

Sperm only survive ... in the female reproductive system

Back 1341

2-3 days

Front 1342

Sperm acquire the ability to fertilize an ovum only after existing some time in the female tract, by a process called

Back 1342

capacitation

Front 1343

6 factors that affect spermatogenesis

Back 1343

1) dietary deficiencies
2) infections
3) administered hormones
4) toxins
5) irradiation
6) elevated testicular temperature

Front 1344

Temperature within the scrotum

Back 1344

2-3 degrees C below body temp (essential for spermatogenesis)

Front 1345

Blood supply to the testis is through the

Back 1345

testicular artery

Front 1346

Testicular artery is surrounded by the

Back 1346

pampiniform plexus of veins which forms a countercurrent heat exchanger

Front 1347

Spermatic chord is made up by

Back 1347

artery, veins, nerves, lymphatics, and the vas deferens

Front 1348

Cremaster muscle is continuous with the

Back 1348

internal oblique

Front 1349

Leydig cells (Nondividing in adult) are derived from

Back 1349

mesoderm

Front 1350

Leydig cells differentiate early in fetal life and secrete

Back 1350

testosterone

Front 1351

At puberty, Leydig cells are exposed to

Back 1351

LH stimulation (from anterior pituitary) and again differentiate into androgen-secreting cells that produce testosterone.

Front 1352

In the adult, secretion of testosterone is essential for the

Back 1352

maintenance of spermatogenesis

Front 1353

Leydig cells are acidophilic. What accounts for this?

Back 1353

They are hormone-secreting, so they have numerous lipid droplets, mitochondria with tubular cristae, and an elaborate smooth ER.

Front 1354

There are no secretory granules in the Leydig cells because...

Back 1354

testosterone is released constituitively

Front 1355

GnRH from the hypothalamus binds to anterior pituitary basophils stimulating the release of

Back 1355

LH.

Front 1356

LH is carried to the testis in the blood stream and binds to

Back 1356

LEYDIG CELLS (causes testosterone production, negative feedback to hypothalamus and anterior pituitary)

Front 1357

Testosterone stimulates

Back 1357

SERTOLI CELLS, which is a requirement for support of sperm production (also secondary sex characteristics).

Front 1358

Prolactin binds to

Back 1358

LEYDIG CELLS and enhances the stimulatory effect of LH on Leydig cells

Front 1359

GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates release of

Back 1359

FSH from the anterior pituitary basophils.

Front 1360

FSH exclusively binds to

Back 1360

SERTOLI CELLS to stimulate ABP production.

Front 1361

ABP binds and concentrates

Back 1361

androgens in the lumen of the tubules

Front 1362

FSH also stimulates SERTOLI CELLS to produce

Back 1362

inhibin, which inhibits the FSH release from the anterior pituitary.

Front 1363

Intratesticular ducts include

Back 1363

straight tubules, rete testis, and proximal portion of efferent ductules.

Front 1364

First half of the straight tubules is solely lined by

Back 1364

Sertoli cells

Front 1365

Second half of the straight tubules is lined by

Back 1365

simple cuboidal epithelium

Front 1366

A complex series of interconnecting channels in the highly vascular connective tissue of the mediastinum testes

Back 1366

rete testis (low cuboidal epithelium)

Front 1367

Approximately 15 short efferent ductules leave the testis by penetrating the tunica albuginea and connect the rete testis to the proximal portion of the

Back 1367

epididymal duct

Front 1368

Efferent ductules are lined with two types of cells

Back 1368

1) tall columnar ciliated
2) short cells (w/ microvilli)

Front 1369

Amount of testicular fluid reabsorbed in the efferent ductules

Back 1369

95% (this causes a downstream current which moves sperm)

Front 1370

Contraction of the fibromuscular coat help to move sperm from the efferent ductules to the

Back 1370

epididymis

Front 1371

distal portions of the efferent ductules, epididymal duct, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra make up the

Back 1371

excurrent duct system

Front 1372

The epididymal duct is a very long, highly coiled tube in which sperm undergo maturation, and is contained within the

Back 1372

epididymis

Front 1373

The coiled epididymal duct measures

Back 1373

4-6 meters in length

Front 1374

The epididymal duct is lined with

Back 1374

pseudostratified epithelium, consisting of tall columnar principal cells and short basal cells.

Front 1375

Basal cells are

Back 1375

stem cells, synthesize glutathione S-transferase

Front 1376

Principal cells are characterized by

Back 1376

long, apical stereocilia

Front 1377

Principal cells are secretory with well-developed rough ER, large Golgi. They secrete

Back 1377

1) sialic acid and glycoproteins - added to sperm glycocalyx
2) organic acids - keep sperm nonmotile
3) glycerophosphocholine - inhibits capacitation

Front 1378

Principle cells phagocytize

Back 1378

any sperm that degenerate in the duct

Front 1379

Principle cells absorb

Back 1379

HCO3-, helps to keep a low lumen pH

Front 1380

Smooth muscle of the epididymis

Back 1380

1) Head and body - thin layer of circular muscle
2) Tail - inner longitudinal, middle circular, outer longitudinal = continuous with vas deferens

Front 1381

Sperm entering the head of the epididymis are not capable of fertilization, but

Back 1381

once they reach the tail where they are stored, they are.

Front 1382

In the head region, the smooth muscle is not innervated (spontaneous contractions), but in the tail region, the smooth muscle becomes heavily innervated by

Back 1382

sympathetic fibers (all muscle cells are directly innervated)

Front 1383

Vas deferens connects to which part of the urethra?

Back 1383

Prostatic

Front 1384

The thick smooth muscle of the vas deferens is composed of what three layers? Innervation and pattern?

Back 1384

inner and outer longitudinal, circular middle. Controlled by sympathetics in multiunit pattern.

Front 1385

As the ampulla of the vas deferens approaches the prostate, it is joined by the

Back 1385

seminal vesicle

Front 1386

True or False. The ejaculatory ducts have no muscle coat.

Back 1386

True

Front 1387

The power for ejaculation comes primarily from

Back 1387

smooth muscle of the vas deferens and caudal portion of the epididymis.

Front 1388

Accessory genital glands include

Back 1388

seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands. All androgen dependent

Front 1389

True or False. Seminal vesicles are one continuous, highly folded, sheet of epithelium

Back 1389

True

Front 1390

Seminal vesicle epithelium is

Back 1390

pseudostratified columnar. Contains tall nonciliated (secretory) and short cells

Front 1391

The secretory product of the seminal vesicles constitutes

Back 1391

50-70% of the volume of semen.

Front 1392

Pale yellow color of semen is due to

Back 1392

flavins (lipochrome pigment). Causes an intense green fluorescence with UV light.

Front 1393

Seminal fluid contains

Back 1393

fructose (and other sugars), seminal vesicle-specific proteins, amino acids, ascorbic acid, and prostoglandins.

Front 1394

Prostate gland is derived from

Back 1394

endoderm

Front 1395

The formation, synthesis, and release of prostatic fluid is regulated by

Back 1395

dihydrotestosterone (5-alpha-reductase)

Front 1396

Prostatic secretions are rich in

Back 1396

zinc, citric acid

Front 1397

Prostatic epithelium also secretes

Back 1397

acid phosphatase, prostate-specific acid phosphatase (PAP), prostate-specific antigen (PSA), fibrinolysin

Front 1398

Typical prostatic cancer is in the

Back 1398

main gland

Front 1399

Bulbourethral glands are known as the

Back 1399

Cowper's glands

Front 1400

Cowper's glands secrete

Back 1400

galactose, galactosamine, galacturonic acid, sialic acid, and methylpentose
Responsible for preseminal fluid

Front 1401

Root of the penis consists of

Back 1401

two crura, bulb, and associated muscles

Front 1402

Body of the penis consists of

Back 1402

two dorsal masses of erectile tissue (corpora cavernose) and a ventral mass of erectile tissue surrounding the penile urethra(corpus spongiosum)

Front 1403

Corpus spongiosum ends distally in the

Back 1403

glans penis

Front 1404

Dense fibroelastic layer that binds the three vacernosa together

Back 1404

tunica algubinea

Front 1405

Foreskin is known as the

Back 1405

prepuce

Front 1406

Erectile tissues of the corpora cavernosa receive blood from branches of the

Back 1406

dorsal and deep arteries of the penis

Front 1407

Venous drainage occurs by the

Back 1407

deep dorsal vein

Front 1408

When the penis is flaccid, much of the arterial blood flow is diverted into

Back 1408

AV anastomoses that connect the branches of the deep arteries of the penis to veins that deliver their blood into the deep dorsal vein.

Front 1409

In the FLACCID STATE, the AV SHUNT is

Back 1409

OPEN (blood flow bypasses the vascular spaces of the erectile tissue)

Front 1410

The shift in blood flow that leads to erection is controlled by the

Back 1410

parasympathetics

Front 1411

The parasympathetic impulses trigger local release of ... which cases relaxation of smooth muscles of the branches of the deep and dorsal arteries, increasing blood flow into the organ.

Back 1411

nitric oxide. Simultaneously, the AV anastomoses undergo construction, diverting the blood flow into the helicine arteries.

Front 1412

During erection, the AV SHUNT is

Back 1412

CLOSED (helicine arteries dilate and blood flows into the cavernous spaces/

Front 1413

Two chemicals control erection

Back 1413

nitric oxide and phosphodiesterase

Front 1414

cGMP, produced in response to NO, causes

Back 1414

relaxation of the smooth muscle cell wall.

Front 1415

What enzyme is produced to destroy cGMP and terminated erection

Back 1415

phosphodiesterase

Front 1416

Emission is a sequential release of products into the urethra. The order of release...

Back 1416

1) Bulbourethral glands add lubricant
2) Prostate adds enzymes
3) Testicular ducts (tail of epididymis and vas deferens) add sperm
4) Seminal vesicles add nutrients

Front 1417

Ejaculation is regulated by the

Back 1417

sympathetic nervous system

Front 1418

Impulses from the sympathetic nervous system trigger

Back 1418

1) contraction of the smooth muscles of the genital ducts and accessory glands forces the semen into the urethra
2) The sphincter muscle of the urinary bladder contracts, preventing the release of urine
3) The bulbospongiosus muscle, which surrounds the proximal end of the bulb of the penis, undergoes powerful, rhythmic contractions, resulting in forceful expulsion of semen from the urethra.

Front 1419

Ejaculation is followed by

Back 1419

cessation of parasympathetic inpulses to the vascular supply of the penis.

Front 1420

Volume of ejaculate

Back 1420

3ml. 20% of sperm are morphologically abnormal, and nearly 25% are nonmotile.

Front 1421

sterile male has a sperm count of less than

Back 1421

20 million sperm/ml

Front 1422

sperm maturation happens in the

Back 1422

epididymis

Front 1423

sperm capacitation happens in the

Back 1423

female reproductive tract

Front 1424

Sperm released from the testis and entering the epididymal duct have circular motion. After a 2-week maturation process, sperm acquire

Back 1424

forward motility

Front 1425

Sperm head consists of three components

Back 1425

condensed nucleus, acrosome, plasma membrane

Front 1426

The acrosome consists of 3 things

Back 1426

outer acrosomal membrane, inner acrosomal membrane, hydrolytic enzymes (hyaluronidase and acrosin)

Front 1427

Three main events during fertilization

Back 1427

1) acrosomal reaction
2) sperm binding to ZP3
3) sperm-oocyte fusion

Front 1428

Hyaluronidase dissolves

Back 1428

intercellular material between the cells of the corona radiata

Front 1429

Binding to ZP3 causes

Back 1429

release of acrosin

Front 1430

Acrosin facilitates

Back 1430

penetration of the zona by the sperm head

Front 1431

Sperm binding induces Ca+-dependent exocytosis of the

Back 1431

cortical granules

Front 1432

Plasma membrane fusion is induced by

Back 1432

disintegrin

Front 1433

Cortical reaction prevents

Back 1433

polyspermy

Front 1434

Fast component of cortical reaction

Back 1434

change in resting membrane potential of the oocyte (only lasts a few minutes)

Front 1435

Slow component of cortical reaction

Back 1435

release of contents of cortical granules into perivitelline space (hydrolyzes ZP3)

Front 1436

Entry of sperm nucleus triggers

Back 1436

secondary oocyte to resume second meiotic division (results in ovum and second polar body)

Front 1437

Femail pronucleus and male pronucleus fuse forming

Back 1437

zygote (46,2N)

Front 1438

Unfertilized egg lacks

Back 1438

centriole (provided by sperm)

Front 1439

Window of time between ovulation and fertilization is about

Back 1439

24 hours

Front 1440

Meiosis is termed

Back 1440

reduction division

Front 1441

The first meiotic division is characterized by

Back 1441

a prolonged prophase

Front 1442

During the first meiotic division the centromere does not

Back 1442

divide

Front 1443

During the second meiotic division the chromosomes become arranged in a

Back 1443

metaphase plate and the centromeres divide

Front 1444

In the male, 4 cells are produced from 2 meiotic divisions (all viable sperm). How many in the female?

Back 1444

3 cells, but only 1 viable egg

Front 1445

Stages of meiosis

Back 1445

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

Front 1446

Stages of Prophase I (meiosis)

Back 1446

1) leptotene
2) zygotene
3) pachytene
4) diplotene
5) diakinesis
"Let's Zip & Package Diploid DNA"

Front 1447

In this stage, sister chromatids appear as single rather than double threads. The telomeres of the chromosomes are attached to the nuclear envelope

Back 1447

leptotene

Front 1448

In this phase, the homologous chromosomes pair (point-for-point correspondence along their length), process called synapsis, forming synaptonemal complex. Resulting structure of this phase is a tetrad.

Back 1448

zygotene

Front 1449

In this stage, chromosomes pack and genetic exchange, called crossing over, occurs between chromatids (can occur between sister and nonsister)

Back 1449

pachytene

Front 1450

In this stage, the synaptonemal complex disassembles and the bomologous chromosomes separate from each other except at two of more specific connecting sites call chiasmata (where crossing over occured)

Back 1450

diplotene

Front 1451

In oocytes, meiosis is arrested at this stage until puberty.

Back 1451

diplotene

Front 1452

This refers to suspended diplotene state

Back 1452

dictyotene stage

Front 1453

In this phase, sister chromatids have beens attached via their centromeres as well the chiasmata. The nuclear envelope disappears

Back 1453

diakinesis

Front 1454

In this stage, the bivalent chromosomes are arranged on an equitorial plate. Each centromere is attached to spindle fibers

Back 1454

Metaphase I

Front 1455

In this state, the chromosomes (2 chromatids each) move to opposite poles. The chiasmata separate.

Back 1455

Anaphase I

Front 1456

In this phase, dyads lie near the poles. Cytokinesis takes place. AKA reduction division because haploid number is reduced.

Back 1456

telophase

Front 1457

There is a short interphase between

Back 1457

first and second meiotic division, during which neither DNA synthesis nor centriole duplication takes place.

Front 1458

During this phase, nuclear envelope breaks down, chromosomes move equatorially. No crossing over!

Back 1458

Prophase II

Front 1459

Chromatids are aligned on the equatorial plate and centromeres device and attach to spindle fibers

Back 1459

metaphase II

Front 1460

Chromatids (daughter chromosomes) move to opposite poles

Back 1460

anaphase II

Front 1461

Nuclear envelope reforms, uncoiling of chromosomes, development of daughter cells

Back 1461

telophase II

Front 1462

Chromosome configuration through the stages of meiosis

Back 1462

46,2N->46,4N->23,2N->23,1N

Front 1463

Aneuploidy refers to

Back 1463

any deviation in the normal number of chromosomes (detected by karyotyping). Includes trisomy and monosomy.

Front 1464

Trisomy 21. Characterized by mental retardation, short stature, stubby appendages, congenital malformations.

Back 1464

Down's syndrome

Front 1465

Associated with aneuploidy of the sex chromosomes (XXY). Characterized by infertility, variable degrees of masculinization, and small testes.

Back 1465

Klinefelter's syndrome

Front 1466

Assiociated with monosomy of the sex chromosomes (XO). Characterized by short stature, sterility. Compatible with life in contrast to other types of monosomy, which are lethal.

Back 1466

Turner's syndrome