Catos Ii

Front 1

Generally, nervous, connective, and muscular tissues is derived from?

Back 1

ectoderm (nervous), mesoderm (connective), and mesoderm (muscular)

Front 2

All tubular organs are lined with what?

Back 2

epithelium

Front 3

Trabecula are

Back 3

long beams of connective tissue

Front 4

Capsule

Back 4

dense connective tissue surrounding compact organs.

Front 5

Follicle

Back 5

a bag, usually without outlet, lined by epithelium as in the thyroid.

Front 6

Twelve major systems

Back 6

Cardiovascular
Endocrine
Lymphatic
Lymphoid/Immune
Skelatal/Articular
Urinary
Nervous
Digestive
Respiratory
Reproductive
Integumentary
Muscular

Front 7

Epithelium exposed to the external environment is derived from what? (oral and nasal mucosae, cornea, epidermis of skin, glands of the skin, mammary glands)

Back 7

ectoderm

Front 8

Epithelium lining the gut (liver, pancrease, lining of respiratory and gastrointestinal tract.

Back 8

endoderm

Front 9

Epithelium lining the urogenital system, cardiovascular system, and serous cavities

Back 9

mesoderm

Front 10

Apical specializations? Basal specializations?

Back 10

(microvilli, cillia). (basal infoldings, hemidesmosomes).

Front 11

Epithelial tissue is vascular or avascular?

Back 11

avascular

Front 12

Typically, in IFs found in epithelia are made of what (exceptions: blood vessels and serous cavities which are)?

Back 12

Keratin (vimentin)

Front 13

What is mesothelium?

Back 13

Epithelium lining closed cavities (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

Front 14

Simple squamous is found...

Back 14

pulmonary alveoli, loop of Henle, parietal layer of Bowman's capsule, blood and lymphatic vessels, pleural and peritoneal cavities.

Front 15

Simple squamous epithelium is suitable for

Back 15

exchange of gases, metabolites, nutrients, and fluids (not for wear and tear areas).

Front 16

Endothelium and mesothelium are derived from what? and contain what?

Back 16

mesoderm and contain vimentin IFs.

Front 17

Simple cuboidal

Back 17

lines kidney tubules, thyroid follicles, and ducts of secretory units. Suitable for secretion and absorption.

Front 18

Simple columnar

Back 18

lines GI tract from stomach to anus, gallbladder, some glandular ducts, and parts of reproductive tracts.

Front 19

Ciliated simple columnar

Back 19

oviduct, uterus, efferent ductules, and small bronchi.

Front 20

Nonciliated simple columnar

Back 20

Small and large intestine, Have striated border microvilli, goblet cells. Also found in gallbladder and large ducts of glands.

Front 21

Stratified squamous keratinized

Back 21

found of dry surfaces. Epidermis of the skin. No nuclei found in outermost layers. Superficial layers are composed of dead cells whose neclei and cytoplasm have been replaced with keratin.

Front 22

Stratified squamous nonkeratinized

Back 22

wet surfaces such as the oral cavity, esophagus and vagina, and covers the tongue.

Front 23

Stratified cubiodal

Back 23

RARE. ducts of sweat glands. protection but some limited secretion.

Front 24

Stratified columnar

Back 24

RARE. Large excretory ducts of some glands. parts of the urethra and part of the conjunctiva of the eye.

Front 25

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Back 25

trachea, bronchi. goblet cells and cilia

Front 26

Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar

Back 26

epididymis. Stereocilia.

Front 27

Stratified epithelium never contains what?

Back 27

Cilia and stereocilia

Front 28

Transitional

Back 28

ureters and urinary bladder

Front 29

Neuroepithelial cells

Back 29

adapted to secrete chemical messengers. Sensory taste cells, mechanoreceptors of inner ear.

Front 30

Malignant tumor from epithelia

Back 30

Carcinoma

Front 31

Malignant tumors arising from glandular epithelia

Back 31

adenocarcinoma

Front 32

Metaplasia

Back 32

transformation of a cell from one type to another

Front 33

Dysplasia

Back 33

degenerative changes

Front 34

anaplasia

Back 34

completely disorganized

Front 35

Cytokines

Back 35

signaling molecules that perform cell-to-cell communication.

Front 36

Exocrine glands

Back 36

empty their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of an epithelium.

Front 37

Endocrine glands

Back 37

have no ducts. Secretions enter interstitial fluid then diffuse into the bloodstream.

Front 38

Only example of unicellular gland

Back 38

goblet cells

Front 39

Types of secretory units

Back 39

Tubular (tubular in shape), alveolar (rounded w/ large lumen), acinar (rounded w/ narrow lumen), tubuloalveolar, tubuloacinar

Front 40

Serous secretion product

Back 40

watery, protein-rich often high in enzyme activity. pancreas.

Front 41

mucus secretion product

Back 41

rich in glycoprotein. PAS+. Product exocytosed and hydrated to mucin. Goblet cells and mucosal glands of tongue and palate.

Front 42

Mixed glands

Back 42

contain mucous acini and serous acini. Mixed seromucous product. May posses serous demilunes. Submandibular and sublingual glands.

Front 43

Sebaceous glands look like...

Back 43

cellophane bag of marshmallows with dots in them.

Front 44

Capsule

Back 44

dense irregular connective tissue of type I collagen.

Front 45

Loose connective tissue

Back 45

type III collagen

Front 46

Myoepithelial cells

Back 46

stellate cells surrounding secretory portions of salivary, sweat, lacrimal and mammary glands, and glands along the bronchi and esophagus. Located between the lasal lamina and lasal pole of the secretory cells. Accelerate expulsion of secretory product into duct system.

Front 47

True or False. Connective tissues are highly vascular and supplied with nerves.

Back 47

True

Front 48

Parent tissue of all varieties of connective tissue?

Back 48

Mesenchyme

Front 49

Intermediate filament of all mesenchymal cells

Back 49

Vimentin

Front 50

Mesenchymal cells are attached by

Back 50

gap junctions

Front 51

Predominant fiber type in the ECM.

Back 51

Type III collagen

Front 52

Mucous connective tissue

Back 52

protects against pressure. abundant hyaluronic acid ground substance. umbilical cord and nucleus pulposus.

Front 53

Three groups of derivatives of mesenchymal cells

Back 53

1) Connective Tissue Proper
2) Hematopoietic tissues
3) Skelatal tissue

Front 54

Connective tissue proper are classified according to:

Back 54

1) Relative density of collagen (loose vs. dense)
2) Predominant cell type
3) Predominant fiber types other than collagen
4) Location

Front 55

Loose connective tissue - areolar

Back 55

embedding medium of many structures, superficial fascia

Front 56

Dense collagenous connective tissue

Back 56

Fibers: Type I Collagen.
Cells: Fibroblasts.

Regular - parallel bundles. Tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses, deep fascia

Irregular - bundles but not parallel. Dermis of skin, capsules of many organs, septa and trabeculae of many organs.

Front 57

Adipose

Back 57

hypodermis, mesentaries, omenta, around kidneys

Front 58

Lamina propria

Back 58

mucosa of digestive, respiratory, urinary and genital tracts. Cells that participate in the immune response are found here.

Front 59

Myxedema

Back 59

Edema caused by excess GAGs in the ECM.

Front 60

Effects of cortisol on CT?

Back 60

Inhibits CT fiber synthesis and retards local inflammatory and immune responses.

Front 61

Areolar connective tissue ground substance

Back 61

hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate.

Front 62

Areolar connective tissues is found

Back 62

suspending vessels and nerves, supporting epithelium, and fills in spaces between other tissues. Well-vascularized conveys oxygen and nutrients to avascular epithelia.

Front 63

Eight resident connective tissue cells

Back 63

Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Endothelial cells
Pericytes
Vascular smooth muscle cells
Adipocytes
Mast cells
Plasma cells

Front 64

Fibroblasts

Back 64

Most common cells in CT proper. Limited mobility, limited mitosis.
Nonpolarized constitutive secretory cell.
Make procollagen, proelastin, GAGs, all ECM components.
Require fibroblast growth factor(FGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF-beta) to make all components of ECM.

Front 65

Fibrocytes

Back 65

immobile, inactive. May revert to fibroblast.

Front 66

Myofibroblasts

Back 66

have bundles of actin and dense bodies similar to smooth muscle cells. Abundant in wound healing

Front 67

2 Macrophages types

Back 67

Free (wandering)
Fixed (histiocytes)

Front 68

Four main characteristics of macrophages

Back 68

1) Common origin - all from monocytes
2) Peculiar morphology - lots of lysosomes, large Golgi and RER
3) Highly phagocytic (Non-specific, dead and dying cells, specific - antibody)
4) Fc receptor sites on PM

Front 69

Macrophages of connective tissue have 3 major functions

Back 69

1) Turn over senescent fibers and ECM material
2) Presentation of antigens to lymphocytes
3) Secretion of cytokines (IL-1, TNF-alpha), chemotactic factors, and enzymes (lysozyme, collagenase)

Front 70

Endothelial cells

Back 70

Develop from mesenchyme. Vimentin and desmin, NOT KERATIN.

Front 71

2 types of capillaries

Back 71

Continuous (no pores), fenestrated (pores)

Front 72

Pericytes

Back 72

functions like smooth muscle.
associated with continuous capillaries and postcapillary venules.

Front 73

Vascular smooth muscle cells

Back 73

Occur in vessels, except capillaries and postcapillary venules (where it's place is taken by pericytes).
IFs are vimentin and desmin.

Front 74

2 types of adipocytes

Back 74

Unilocular and Multilocular

Front 75

Unilocular adipocytes

Back 75

contain nonmembrane-bound lipid droplet. Few mitochondria, sparce RER, but many ribosomes. ONLY CT surrounded by basal lamina. Precursors are lipoblasts.

Front 76

Multilocular adipocytes

Back 76

numerous lipid droplets. numerous mitochondria. Thermogenin (UCP-1) permits proton flow across membrane producing heat. Single nucleus, lack RER, but have SER. Less free ribosomes. Develop before birth from mesenchyme.

Front 77

White adipose

Back 77

lipoprotein lipase - takes off triglycerides from chylomicrons for uptake. Leptin is produced (appetite suppressant).

Packing in potential spaces.

Front 78

Brown adipose

Back 78

multilocular adipocytes. axilla, neck, mediastinum, kidney hilus.

Front 79

Adipose tissue

Back 79

richly vascularized, innervated via sympathetics. Epinephrine promotes lipolysis via hormone-sensitive lipase. Insulin stimulates uptake of glucose and conversion to triglycerides.

Front 80

Mast cells

Back 80

numerous in dermis and lamina propria of digestive and respiratory systems. 20-30 micrometers. life = months to years.

Secretory cell (paracrine).

Front 81

Mast cell products

Back 81

Primary [granules] (Fast acting 1-5min):
Histamine - increase vascular permeability, hayfever, anaphylaxis
Eosinophil chemotactic factor - attracts eosinophils to infection
Neutrophil chemotactic factor - attracts neutrophils to infection

Secondary [from membrane lipids] (5-30min):
Leukotrienes C4 and D4 - increase vascular permeability and cause bronchospasms
Prostaglandin D2 - causes bronchospasms.

Front 82

Mast cell activation

Back 82

1) exposure to antigen elicits IgE antibody formation -> bind to Fc receptor -> cell sensitization
2) exposure to same antigen causes binding on IgE on mast cell surface, causes crosslinking of IgE antibodies and clustering of receptors.
3) Cross-linking and clustering activate membrane-bound receptor coupling factors, which causes the release of primary and secondary mediators.
4) Release of primary mediators is effected by activation of adenylate cyclase.
5) Increase of cAMP activates release of Ca++, causing secretory granules of fuse with each other as well as plasma membrane (compound exocytosis).

Front 83

Plasma cells

Back 83

20 micrometers, live 2-3 weeks
basophilic, RER
large Golgi
oval, spherical "clockface" nucleus
produce and secrete antibodies
precursor is B lymphocyte.

Front 84

Neutrophils (granulocyte)

Back 84

Multilobed (2-4) nucleus.
primarily phagocytose bacteria

Front 85

Eosinophils (granulocyte)

Back 85

bilobed (maybe 3-4) nucleus
numerous, large cytoplasmic granules.
degrades histamine and leukotrienes.
phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes.
combat parasites by release cytotoxins.
especially in lamina propria of intestine (chronic immunologic responses).

Front 86

Monocytes (agranulocyte)

Back 86

20 micrometers (largest leukocyte)
differentiate into macrophages
look like macrophages

Front 87

lymphocytes (agranulocyte)

Back 87

smallest of CT cells (7 micrometers)
round densely stained nucleus.
pale blue cytoplasm (ribosomes)

Front 88

b lymphocyte (agranulocyte)

Back 88

humoral immunity.
antigens bind causing mitosis.
daughter cells differentiate into plasma cells

Front 89

t lymphocyte (agranulocyte)

Back 89

cell-mediated immunity
cell divide when antigens bind.
daughter cells surround, adhere to, and kill virus-infected cells.

Front 90

epithelial layer plus underlying connective tissue =

Back 90

epithelial membrane

Front 91

Principle epithelial membranes of the body

Back 91

mucous membranes
serous membranes
cutaneous membranes

Front 92

Mucous membrane (mucosa)

Back 92

CT is lamina propria.

Front 93

Serous membrane (serosa)

Back 93

CT is loose areolar.
mesothelium (simple squamous)
parietal and visceral layer
pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Front 94

Skin =

Back 94

Epidermis (epithelium) + Dermis (subjacent CT)

Front 95

Mucosa

Back 95

Epithelium (epithelium) + Lamina propria (subjacent CT)

Front 96

Serosa =

Back 96

Mesothelium (epithelium) + Submesothelial layer (subjacent CT)

Front 97

Fundamental difference between cartilage and bone

Back 97

Cartilage = avascular
Bone = highly vascular

Front 98

Cartilage ground substance components

Back 98

aggrecan and chondronectin

Front 99

Bone ground substance components

Back 99

chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, osteocalcin, osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, hydroxyapatite, carbonate

Front 100

Cartilage collagen types

Back 100

Type I (fibrocartilage)
Type II (hyaline and elastic)

Front 101

Bone collagen types

Back 101

type I

Front 102

Cartilage blood vessels

Back 102

absent; nutrients received via diffusion through gel matrix

Front 103

Cartilage repair capacity

Back 103

low

Front 104

Bone repair capacity

Back 104

high

Front 105

Cartilage mitosis

Back 105

chondroblasts: yes
chondrocytes: yes

Front 106

Bone mitosis

Back 106

osteoprogenitor: yes
osteoblasts: no
osteocytes: no

Front 107

Bone communication

Back 107

gap junctions between osteocytes and between osteoblasts

Front 108

Cartilage hormonal influence

Back 108

T3 and T4, testosterone, growth hormone, cortisone, hydrocortisone, estradiol

Front 109

Bone hormonal influence

Back 109

parathyroid hormone, growth hormone, estrogens, androgens

Front 110

How is cartilage different from other CTs?

Back 110

No nerves, blood supply, or lymphatics.

Front 111

Elastic cartilage

Back 111

ear, auditory tubes, epiglottis

Front 112

Hyaline cartilage

Back 112

nasal cartilage, thyroid cartilage, tracheal and bronchial cartilages, costal cartilages, articular cartilages

Front 113

Fibrocartilage

Back 113

Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, muscle insertions, meniscus

Front 114

No fibers visible

Back 114

Hyaline cartilage

Front 115

With an abundance of elastic fibers

Back 115

Elastic cartilage

Front 116

With dense collagenous fibers

Back 116

Fibrocartilage

Front 117

Prototype for all cartilage

Back 117

hyaline cartilage

Front 118

Hyaline cartilage is located in the

Back 118

septum of the nose, trachea, bronchi, larynx, ribs (vertebral ends), long bones (articular ends).

Front 119

In hyaline cartilage, chondrocytes are large cells that completely fill spaces in the matrix known as ...

Back 119

lacunae

Front 120

Chondrocytes

Back 120

round or oval nucleus
manufacture the matrix
do not communicate with each other

Front 121

2 types of lacunae

Back 121

primary and secondary.

secondary lacunae are formed from primary lacunae in which the parent cells have divided.

Front 122

Number of cells found in secondary lacuna

Back 122

1

Front 123

Territorial matrix

Back 123

basophilic region around a cell nest (isogenous group)

Front 124

Predominant collagen in hyaline cartilage

Back 124

Type II. Minor IX, X, XI

Front 125

GAGs in hyaline cartilage

Back 125

chondroiton sulfate, keratan sulfate, hyaluronic acid

Front 126

Glycoprotein in hyaline cartilage

Back 126

chondronectin

Front 127

Proteoglycan in hyaline cartilage

Back 127

aggrecan

Front 128

Chondronectin is

Back 128

similar to fibronectin, has binding sites for type II collagen, chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, and integrins of chondroblasts and chondrocytes.

Front 129

Hyaline cartilage functions as

Back 129

shock absorber due to flexibility and resiliency to compression.

Front 130

Hyaline cartilage is enclosed in

Back 130

perichondrium

Front 131

Perichondrium has 2 layers

Back 131

fibrous and chondrogenic

Front 132

fibrous perichondrium

Back 132

well vascularized dense irregular connective tissue containing elastic fibers, type I collagen fibers, and fibroblasts.

Front 133

Cartilage formation is from

Back 133

mesenchyme

Front 134

Precartilage (centers of chondrification)

Back 134

aggregations of mesenchymal cells

Front 135

Isogenous group

Back 135

division of chondrocytes within primary lacunae

Front 136

Hyaline cartilage grows by 2 simultaneous methods

Back 136

Interstitial growth - results from proliferation of young chondrocytes

Appositional growth - chondrogenic layer of the perichondrium

Front 137

Interstitial growth only occurs

Back 137

early phase of hyaline cartilage formation

Front 138

Articular cartilage only grows by

Back 138

interstitial growth (lacks a perichondrium)

Front 139

Increases growth rate of epiphyseal pates

Back 139

Testosterone and growth hormone via IGF-1

Front 140

Elastic cartilage is found

Back 140

pinna of the ear, auditory tube, epiglottis, larynx

Front 141

Predominant collagen in elastic cartilage

Back 141

Type II collagen

Front 142

True or false. Elastic cartilage does not calcify.

Back 142

True

Front 143

CT in fibrocartilage

Back 143

dense regular

Front 144

Location of fibrocartilage

Back 144

intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, tendons and ligaments.

Front 145

Collagen in fibrocartilage

Back 145

Type I collagen

Front 146

True or False. Fibrocartilage has no perichondrium.

Back 146

True

Front 147

2 arrangements of bone

Back 147

Spongy(epiphysis of mature long bones, core of short bones, between the flat bones of the skull) and compact (diaphyseal cylinder of long bones, thin covering over epiphysis, tables of flat bones of skull)

Front 148

Osteoid

Back 148

composed of fibers and unmineralized ground substance

Front 149

Osteoid is 90-95%

Back 149

type I collagen fibers

Front 150

Majority of the non-collagenous proteins of the osteoid

Back 150

Chondroitin sulfate and osteocalcin

Front 151

Osteoblast lineage

Back 151

osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. Outside bone.

Front 152

Osteoclast progenitor pathway

Back 152

osteoclasts. Inside bone

Front 153

Four types of bone cells

Back 153

Osteoprogenitor, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts.

Front 154

Osteoprogenitor cells are

Back 154

stem cells found in the endosteum and periosteum. Derived from mesenchyme, differentiate into osteoblasts. Most active during intense bone growth.

Front 155

Osteoblasts are

Back 155

major bone-forming cells. Cuboidal, one-cell-thick sheets on surfaces where bone is being deposited. Exhibit high alkaline phosphatase activity, well-developed RER and Golgi. Synthesize and secrete all organic components of bone matrix (osteoid). Osteoblasts + surrounding matrix --> osteocytes.
Secrete M-CSF

Front 156

Osteocytes are

Back 156

bone cells found in lacunae. Canaliculi radiate from cell body, contact through gap junctions. Osteocytic osteolysis, stimulated by PTH.

Front 157

Osteoclasts are

Back 157

large (150 micrometer), multinucleated (up to 50 nuclei), motile cells found in Howship's lacunae. Ca++ homeostasis via bone resorption. Carbonic anhydrase and proton pumps in ruffled border reduce pH in bone resorbing compartment dissolving inorganic component of matrix.
Acid phosphatase and cathepsin K degrade organic components of bone matrix.

PTD and vitamin D regulate bone-resorbing activity of osteoclasts.

Front 158

Bone matrix is laid down in

Back 158

flattened rows called lamellae with osteocytes trapped in lacunae throughout.

Front 159

3 lamellar arrangements are

Back 159

1) Haversian system (osteon)
2) Interstitial lamella
3) Circumferential lamella

Front 160

Osteon is composed of

Back 160

cylinders of lamellae arranged in concentric rings. Collagen fibers alternate between right and left handed helices. Haversian canal (vascular) passes along axis of system. Volkmann's canals connect Haversian canals. Canaliculi connect lacunae (lifeline). Cement line surrounds system.

Front 161

Interstitial lamella is

Back 161

located between Haversian systems, are chunks of older Haversian systems remaining after remodeling of compact bone by osteoclastic activity. Oldest lamellae of compact bone.

Front 162

Circumferential lamella are

Back 162

flat layers that border inner and outer edges of bome. Outer circumferential lamellae are produced by the osteogenic layer of the periosteum. Contains Sharpey's fibers anchoring the periosteum to the bone. Inner circumferential lamellae are those produced by the endosteum and encircle the inner aspect of the bone (marrow cavity). Trabeculae of spongy bone extend from the inner circumferential lamellae into the marrow cavity, interrupting the endosteal lining of the inner circumferential lamellae.

Front 163

Periosteum is a

Back 163

fibrocellular sheath present on bone, except at synovial articular surfaces and where tendons and muscles insert into the bone.

Front 164

Periosteum has 2 layers

Back 164

fibrous - dense,irregular collagenous connective tissue containing collagen fibers and fibroblasts

osteogenic - inner cellular layer (osteoprogenitor) that have the potential to become osteoblasts and secrete additional bone matrix.

Front 165

Bone is restricted to what type of growth?

Back 165

Appositional

Front 166

The central cavity of bone is lined by

Back 166

endosteum

Front 167

Endosteum consists of a monolayer of

Back 167

osteogenic cells and osteoblasts and fine reticular fibers. Lines both Haversian and Volkmann's canals and is continuous with the periosteum.

Front 168

4 blood supplies of bone

Back 168

1) Periosteal arteries
2) Volkmann's canals
3) nutrient artery - divides into proximal and distal branches
4) Haversian canals

Front 169

4 types of bone surfaces

Back 169

1) periosteal
2) Haversian
3) cortical-endosteal
4) trabecular-endosteal

Front 170

Osteocalcin is a glycoprotein in osteoid that

Back 170

binds extracellular calcium ions leading to high local concentration

Front 171

alkaline phophatase is abundant in osteoblasts which

Back 171

increases local calium and phophate ion concentrations

Front 172

5 epiphyseal plate zones

Back 172

1) Zone of resting cartilage
2) Zone of proliferating cartilage
3) Zone of hypertrophying cartilage
4) Zone of calcifying cartilage matrix
5) Zone of ossification

Front 173

Immature bone

Back 173

interlacing arrangement of collagen fibers designated woven bone.

Front 174

Woven bone contain

Back 174

randomly arranged cells (more per area than mature lamellar bone)

Front 175

Two types of bone marrow

Back 175

Yellow and Red

Front 176

Yellow marrow is

Back 176

located in the long bones of adults
highly infiltrated with fate
not hematopoietic, although has potential.

Front 177

Red marrow is

Back 177

located in the epiphyses of long bones, as well as flat, irregular, and short bones.
highly vascular composed of stroma, large venous sinusoids, and many islands of hematopoietic cells
the site where the various blood cells differentiate and mature postnatally.

Front 178

Bone marrow lacks

Back 178

lymphatics

Front 179

Blood vessels of marrow compartment

Back 179

1) nutrient arteries
2) central longitudinal arteries
3) radial arteries
4) sinusoids

Front 180

Sinusoids are

Back 180

large (45-80 micrometer) vascular channels
associated on the extravascular surfaces with reticular fibers and adventitial reticular cells
drain into a central longitudinal vein.
prevented from collapsing because the veins are smaller than the arteries
passage of blood cells into the sinusoidal lumen is transcellular (blood cells pass through migration pores)

Front 181

Stromal cells

Back 181

include macrophages, reticular cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells interspersed within trabecular bone. Produce and release various hematopoietic growth factors.

Front 182

Reticular cells manufacture

Back 182

reticular fibers (type III collagen) and seems to divide the bone marrow cavity into smaller compartments

Front 183

Reticular cells may accumulate

Back 183

fat thus transforming red marrow into yellow marrow.

Front 184

Reticular cells also produce these adhesive glycoproteins

Back 184

fibronectin, laminin, and hemonectin

Front 185

3 hematopoietic cells

Back 185

1) Stem cells - self-renewal, multiple cell lineages, present in circulation and bone-marrow
2) Progenitor cells - single cell lineage (CFU), proliferate and differentiate in presence of growth factor. Look like stem cells
3) Precursor cells - all cells in each lineage that display distinct morphologic characteristics.

Front 186

CFU-EO

Back 186

eosinophils

Front 187

CFU-Bas

Back 187

basophils

Front 188

CFU-GM

Back 188

neutrophils, monocytes

Front 189

CFU-Meg

Back 189

megakaryocytes

Front 190

BFU-E-->CFU-E-->

Back 190

erythrocytes

Front 191

Erythropoiesis

Back 191

1) Unipotenial cell
2) Proerythroblast
3) Basophillic erythroblast
4) Polychromatophilic erythroblast
5) Orthochromatophilic erythroblast
6) Reticulocyte
7) Erythrocyte

Front 192

Thrombopoiesis, stimulated by thrombopoietin (produced in the liver and kidney)

Back 192

1) Unipotential cell
2) Megakaryoblast
3) Promegakaryocyte
4) Megakaryocyte
5) Platelets

Front 193

Granulopoiesis

Back 193

1) Unipotential cell
2) Myeloblast
3) Promyelocyte
4) (Neutro/Eosino/Baso)philic myelocyte
5) (Neutro/Eosino/Baso)philic metamyelocyte
6) (Neutro/Eosino/Baso)philic band
7) (Neutro/Eosino/Baso)phil

Front 194

Monopoiesis

Back 194

1) Unipotential cell
2) Monoblast
3) Promonocyte
4) Monocyte
5) Tissue Macrophage

Front 195

Hematopoiesis is regulated by

Back 195

colony-stimulating factors (CSFs)

Front 196

CFU-E responds to

Back 196

erythropoietin (released as a result of hypoxia), a hormone from the kidney that stimulates erythropoiesis.

Front 197

Proerythroblast

Back 197

15-20 micrometers
large round central nucleus w/ dispersed chromatin
thin rim of basophilic cytoplasm
NO GRANULES
mitosis

Front 198

Basophilic erythroblast

Back 198

nucleus begins to condense and clump
darker blue cytoplasm

Front 199

Polychromatophilic erythroblast

Back 199

8-10 micrometers
checkerboard chromatin
grey cytoplasm
last cell that can undergo mitosis

Front 200

Orthochromatophilic erythroblast

Back 200

cytoplasm is color of erythrocyte
pyknotic eccentric nucleus
postmitotic

Front 201

Reticulocyte

Back 201

no nucleus
pink cytoplasm
slightly larger than RBC, no biconcave shape

Front 202

Erythrocyte

Back 202

non-nucleated, biconcave-shaped
7.5 micrometers
lack organelles (only PM, cytoskelaton, hemoglobin, and glycolytic enzymes)
120 day lifespan

Front 203

Myeloblast

Back 203

round nucleus w/ finely dispersed chromatin
cytoplasm is lightly basophilic due to RER and no granules
mitosis

Front 204

Promyelocyte

Back 204

azurophilic granules (occurs exclusively at this stage)

Front 205

Myelocyte

Back 205

round or oval nucleus
synthesis of specific granules (occurs exclusive at this stage)
Neutrophilic = pale iliac granules
Eosinophilic = red-orange granules
Basophilic = blue-purple granules
last stage capable of mitosis

Front 206

Metamyelocytes

Back 206

eccentric, indented, kidney-shaped nucleus
specific granules outweight primary granules
postmitotic

Front 207

Band cells

Back 207

U-shaped nucleus

Front 208

Azurophilic granules contain

Back 208

lysozyme - break down cell wall of some bacteria
acid hydrolases including acid phosphatase
myeloperoxidase - reacts with H2O2 to generate potent, bacteria-killing oxidants
cationic proteins called defensins (antibacterial)

Front 209

Specific granules contain

Back 209

lactoferrin - binds iron required to bacterial growth
lysozyme

Front 210

Myeloperoxidase produces

Back 210

hypochlorite

Front 211

Eosinophils

Back 211

1-4% of WBCs (increase in parasitic infections and allergic responses)
10-14 micrometers
nucleus is bilobed
cytoplasm contains large, refractile specific granules (major basic protein - kills parasitic worms by forming pores in their cell membranes; histaminase - deactivates histamine)

Front 212

Basophils

Back 212

<1% or WBCs (increases in allergic reactions)
8-10 micrometers
bilobed, S-shaped nucleus
large specific granules
express IgE receptors(like mast cells) and release histamine to mediate allergic reactions when activated by antigen binding

Front 213

Function of neutrophils

Back 213

eliminate opsonized bacteria or limit the extent of an inflammatory reaction in the connective tissue

Front 214

Function of eosinophils

Back 214

phagocytose antigen-antibody complexes and kill parasitic invaders; also participate in triggering bronchial asthma.

Front 215

Function of basophils

Back 215

play a role in immediate (bronchial asthma) and delayed hypersensitivity (allergic skin reaction) and in the propagation of the immune response.

Front 216

Promonocytes

Back 216

16-18 micrometers
somewhat kidney-shaped eccentric nucleus
azurophilic granules
extensive Golgo, many mitochondria, RER

Front 217

Monocytes

Back 217

12-15 micrometers (largest circulating blood cells
4-10% of WBCs
large, eccentric, kidney-shaped nucleus
abundant cytoplasm w/ numerous azurophilic granules
12-100 hour lifespan in blood then move to connective tissue

Front 218

Function of monocytes

Back 218

differentiate into macrophage after entering connective tissue. Macrophages phagocytose unwanted particulate matter, produce cytokines that are required for the inflammatory and immune responses, and present epitopes to T lymphocytes.

Front 219

Megakaryoblasts

Back 219

25-40 micrometers
single large nucleus w/ fine chromatin
divide endomitotically
basophilic, nongranular cytoplasm containing large mitochondria, numerous polysomes, some RER, and well-developed Golgi

Front 220

Megakaryocytes

Back 220

40-100 micrometers
single, large polyploid nucleus is highly indented
well-developed Golgi associated with alpha granules, lysosomes (lambda granules), and dense bodies (delta granules)
numerous mitochondria and RER
lie just outside sinusoids in the bone marrow
form platelet demarcation channels from the plasma membrane, which fragment into platelets.

Front 221

Platelets

Back 221

2-4 micrometers
biconvex disc, non-nucleated
hyalomere (peripheral clear region)
10-15 microtubules arranged parallel forming a ring within the hyalomere
granulomere (central darker region) - contain alpha, delta, lambda granules

Front 222

Needed for RBC DNA synthesis

Back 222

Transferrin and Transcobolamin

Front 223

Variable and constant regions of light chain? Heavy chain?

Back 223

"V J, C. V D J, C"

Front 224

What accounts for the vast diversity of amino acid sequences in the variable regions?

Back 224

Somatic recombination

Front 225

Coagulation proteins' mission?

Back 225

To form a stable plus (fibrin and platlets)

Front 226

Components of coagulation are all synthesized in the liver except for

Back 226

VIII

Front 227

Vitamin K is important for clotting because

Back 227

gamma carboxyglutamate formation

Front 228

Fibrinolysis

Back 228

tPA cleaves plasminogen to plasmin

Front 229

Platelets are

Back 229

cell components for homeostatis.<br>-activate coaggulation factors<br>-aggregate<br>-interlace w/ fibrin

Front 230

3 granulocytes are

Back 230

"eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils"

Front 231

Hematopoiesis sites

Back 231

"Yolk sac: 2 weeks (nucleated RBC, no lympho)<br>Hepatosplenic: 6 weeks (nucleated RBC, some lympho)<br>Bone marrow: 5 months (mature)"

Front 232

Capabilities of stem cell

Back 232

differentiation or self-renewal

Front 233

asymmetric mitosis

Back 233

self-renewal and differentiation

Front 234

Bone marrow stromal cells

Back 234

"Fibroblasts, endothelial cells, reticular cells, macrophages<br>Also, ECM proteins (collagen, laminin, fibronectin) and growth factors."

Front 235

Hematopoietic growth factors

Back 235

Myeloid: CSFs(GM/G/IL-3)<br>Lymphoid: IL-6<br>Erythroid: Epo<br>Thromboid: Tpo

Front 236

Feedback mechanisms of hematopoiesis:

Back 236

trigger/sensor/growth factor/target/effect<br>Drop in O2/kidney baroreceptors/erythropoietin/CFU-E in BM/erythropoiesis<br>Microbial invasion/immune system alert/CSFs+interleukins/GEMM-CFU in B.M./WBC<br>Injury/bleeding+hypoxia/thrombopoietin/megakaryoblast in B.M./platelet production

Front 237

Acute Leukemia

Back 237

Results from a block in differentiation of leukemic stem cells. Leukemic blasts accumulate because of a failure of maturation into functional end cells. Leukemic blasts diffusely replace the bone marrow and usually spill over into the blood. Clinical presentation will be bacterial infection.

Front 238

Growth factor needed for erythropoiesis

Back 238

Erythropoietin (Epo) synthesized by kidney.

Front 239

Role of RBC in CO2 transport

Back 239

CO2 diffuses thru RBC membrane-&gt;carbonate (carbonic anhydrase)-&gt;bicarbonate-&gt;transported out of cell by Band 3.

Front 240

Cofactors of enzymes needed for DNA synthesis

Back 240

Vitamin B12 &amp; folate

Front 241

Anemia

Back 241

"decrease in total circulating RBC, in hemoglobin concentration in blood, or in hematocrit."

Front 242

"Microcytic, hypochromic anemias"

Back 242

Conditions that interfere with hemoglobin production<br>1) iron deficiency<br>2) disorders of globin synthesis (thalassemia)<br>3) disorders of porphyrin and heme synthesis

Front 243

Macrocytic: megaloblastic anemia

Back 243

"Defective DNA synthesis that interferes with red cell maturation, resulting in large red cells that do not function properly. Vit B12, IF, or folate deficiencies."

Front 244

Granules in neutrophil

Back 244

primary/azurophilic; secondary/specific.

Front 245

Eight steps of phagocytosis

Back 245

1) Adherence/transendothelial migration (diapedesis)<br>2) Chemotaxis<br>3) Recognition<br>4) Ingestion<br>5) Degranulation of granules content to the interior of phagosome<br>6) Formation of reactive oxygen products<br>7) Release of particles after killing and release of inflammation mediators for cell recruitment<br>8) Detoxification of reactive oxygen products

Front 246

WBC exits blood vessel by

Back 246

1) rolling and initial contact (through selectins)<br>2) diapedesis (throught integrins)

Front 247

Enzyme which forms 1) reactive oxygen 2) hypochlorite

Back 247

1) NADPH oxidase<br>2) myeloperoxidase

Front 248

Buffering enzymes

Back 248

SOD/glutathione system and catalase

Front 249

Exhaustion in overwhelming infection means

Back 249

exhaustion of marrow granulocyte reserves. Neutropenia in the course of infection is a poor prognostic sign.

Front 250

Voltage gated Na and K channels mediate

Back 250

"electrical signaling in neurons, cardiac muscle and skelatal muscle."

Front 251

Voltage gated Ca channels mediate

Back 251

"hormone and neurotransmitter release. When they open, intracellular Ca concentration increases, which stimulates calcium-dependent processes such as exocytosis."

Front 252

What causes the negative RESTING POTENTIAL of an excitable cell?

Back 252

"K concentration gradiants, and that there are only K-channels open @ resting potential, allow K ions to diffuse."

Front 253

Voltage-gated ion channels are formed by how many domains?

Back 253

4

Front 254

Each domain in a voltage gated ion channel is made up of how many transmembrane segments?

Back 254

"6, plus a p-loop"

Front 255

Which segment of the voltage gated ion channel is the voltage sensor?

Back 255

S4. It contains charged amino acids.

Front 256

Difference between genes for (Na and Ca channel) and (K channel)?

Back 256

K channel encodes for only 1 domain. 4 domains must come together to form pore. Na and Ca encodes for all 4 domains.

Front 257

Voltage-gated Na channel open @ what voltage?

Back 257

begin @ -50mV. Max open @ -10mV.

Front 258

"Most voltage-gated ion channels have 2 states, open and closed. Na channels have 3. What is the third? Why is it considered a third state?"

Back 258

"Inactivated. It has a different conformation from the &quot;closed&quot; state. Part of the protein moves into the pore and blocks it. This happens when the cell is more positive than the resting potential for a long time. In order to &quot;reactivate&quot;, the membrane potential must return to a very negative potential."

Front 259

Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis

Back 259

"associated with a mild elevation of blood potassium (exercise, stress, fasting, or eating K+ rich foods)."

Front 260

Tetrodotoxin

Back 260

"Puffer fish toxin. Highly specific, reversible blocker of Na channels. Paralysis and death at very low concentrations."

Front 261

Lidocaine and Novacaine

Back 261

local anesthetics that act by blocking Na channels.

Front 262

Calcium channels

Back 262

T-type channels open around -50 to -40 mV similar to Na. High voltage activated (HVA) ~ +10mV: long openings (L-type) and short openings.<br><br>Diversity allows performance of unique functions.

Front 263

Agents that block voltage-gated L-type Ca channels

Back 263

Nifedipine and Verapamil

Front 264

Lambert Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome

Back 264

"Patients produce antibodies to N,P,Q voltage-gated calcium channels, causing destruction of calcium channels at the presynaptic nerve terminal. Synaptic transmission is impaired causing muscle weakness and fatigue."

Front 265

6 different types of voltage gated Ca channels

Back 265

LNPQRT

Front 266

Ca channel blockers are primarily used in the treatment of ?

Back 266

"Cardiovascular diseases including angina, arrhythmia and hypertension."

Front 267

Nerve and muscle synapse have what type of neurotransmitter receptors?

Back 267

Acetylcholine

Front 268

Reversal potential is

Back 268

the potential at which no net current occurs when a channel is open. It is an important characteristic of a ligand-gated ion channel.

Front 269

Reversal potentials are

Back 269

equal to the Nernst potential for the ion that they pass.

Front 270

Ach receptors pass what? It's reversal potential is what?

Back 270

Na and K. 0mV

Front 271

Ach receptor is EXCITATORY because

Back 271

it make the cell potential more positive

Front 272

Inhibitors of Ach receptor

Back 272

d-tubocurarine and Vecuronium

Front 273

Agonists of ionotropic and metabotropic ACh receptors

Back 273

"Nicotine (ionotropic). Muscarine (metabotropic). Therefore, nicotinic receptor means ACh-gated ion channel."

Front 274

ACh receptor structure

Back 274

"transmembrane protein, 5 subunits each with multiple transmembrane segments. <br><br>2 identical alpha-subunits which contain the ACh binding site, taking 2 ACh molecules to open the channel.<br><br>Fetal: alpha,alpha,beta,gamma,delta<br>Adult: alpha,alpha,beta,epsilon,delta<br><br>Fetal has long openings w/ small amplitudes<br>Adult has short openings w/ large amplitudes"

Front 275

Types of glutamate receptors

Back 275

"AMPA, kainate, NMDA"

Front 276

Non-NMDA channels are

Back 276

"non-selective cation channels similar to the ACh channel. Pass Na and K, 0mV reversal potential. EXCITATORY."

Front 277

NMDA channels are

Back 277

"non-selective cation channels that pass Na, K, and Ca. Binding of glutamate and glycine required. Blocked by zinc. If opened @ a negative potential, Mg blocks the channel. Therefore, Na and K move out, and Ca moves in @ +70mV. Excess glutamate is CYTOTOXIC because it will cause an increase in intracellular Ca and cause cell death."

Front 278

"Made up of 4 subunits. Can be homomer, or heteromer"

Back 278

glutamate receptors

Front 279

Competitive antagonist of AMPA receptors

Back 279

NBQX

Front 280

Competitive antagonists of NMDA receptors

Back 280

D-AP5 and D-AP7

Front 281

Non-competitive antagonists of NMDA receptor

Back 281

Ketamine and MK-801

Front 282

GABA receptors

Back 282

"post-synaptic, Cl- ion channel, INHIBITORY, 5 subunits, subunits encoded by multiple genes = diversity."

Front 283

Allosteric potentiators of GABA (increase the effect of GABA)

Back 283

Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety) and barbituates (sedatives).

Front 284

Blockers of GABA receptor

Back 284

"Cause excessive neuronal excitation, which lead to seizures. Picrotoxin (non-competitive antagonist) and bicuculline (competitive antagonist)"

Front 285

Only glial cells in the PNS

Back 285

Schwann cells

Front 286

Multipolar neurons

Back 286

3 or more processes (one of which is axon) Cell bodies in CNS and in autonomic ganglia.

Front 287

Bipolar neurons

Back 287

"2 processes (2 axons). Cell bodies in retina, and vestibular and acoustic ganglia."

Front 288

Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons

Back 288

Derived from bipolar neurons during development. 1 process (axon) which bifurcates. Soma in DRG and sensory ganglia of certain CNs.

Front 289

Three types of neurons

Back 289

"Sensor, motor, Interneurons (interconnectors - usually in CNS)"

Front 290

Neural tube derived cells

Back 290

soma inside CNS

Front 291

Neural crest derived cells

Back 291

soma outside CNS

Front 292

Only stem cells in the PNS

Back 292

bipolar olfactory neurons within the olfactory epithelium

Front 293

Nissl bodies are

Back 293

basophilic clumps of RER and polysomes in perikaryon

Front 294

Dendrites carry

Back 294

"graded potentials (EPSP, IPSP) to the cell body (decremental conduction)."

Front 295

Axon contains

Back 295

"neurofilaments, microtubules, actin filaments, mitochondria and various vesicles. NO Nissl bodies in the axon or hillock."

Front 296

Axon hillock

Back 296

"contains microtubule bundles, trigger zone, carry action potentials away from soma. Axon branches (rare) occur @ only right angles and only nodes of ranvier."

Front 297

Slow axon transport (1-5mm/day)

Back 297

"unidirectional waves of material with defined composition, providing growth and maintenance (actin, tubulin, neurofilament proteins, metabolic enzymes. Regeneration."

Front 298

Fast axon transport (100-500mm/day)

Back 298

Bidirectional. ATP dependent. Dyenin and Kinesin (microtubules).

Front 299

Neuronal signaling involves

Back 299

"Ion pumps, voltage-gated Na and K channels, voltage-gated Ca channels, ligand-gated channels (neurotransmitters)"

Front 300

Unmyelinated axon Na channels

Back 300

are uniformly distribuand few in numberted

Front 301

Myelinated axon Na channels

Back 301

clustered at nodes of Ranvier.

Front 302

"Only type of glial cell in PNS, neural crest derivatives, surrounded by external lamina, contain GFAP IFs."

Back 302

Schwann cells

Front 303

Schwann cells around a soma is called

Back 303

satellite cells

Front 304

Schwann cells around axons are called

Back 304

Schwann sheath

Front 305

Schwann cells around 1 axon

Back 305

myelinated axon

Front 306

Schwann cell around many axons

Back 306

unmyelinated axon

Front 307

Axon hillock...Myelinated or unmyelinated?

Back 307

Unmyelinated

Front 308

Neurilemma is always known as

Back 308

Schwann sheath

Front 309

Region where the lips of the encircling Schwann cell approach each other

Back 309

mesaxon

Front 310

Major dense lines

Back 310

fused P surfaces of the inner leaflets of the Schwann cell plasma membrane, adherence by Myelin basic protein

Front 311

Fusion of the E surfaces

Back 311

results in the intraperiod lines, self-adherence by Protein zero (P0)

Front 312

Cytoplasm at the node of Ranvier is called

Back 312

perinodal cytoplasm

Front 313

Schmidt-Lantermann clefts

Back 313

discontinuities in the myelin sheath (unknown fxn). Only in myelinated.

Front 314

Synaptic vesicles attached to active zone of presynaptic membrane by

Back 314

synaptophysin

Front 315

Synaptic vesicles attached to microfilaments by

Back 315

synapsin

Front 316

Smaller clear synaptic vesicles contain ... Larger dense core synaptic vesicles contain ...

Back 316

Acetylcholine. epinephrine (norepinephrine)

Front 317

Asymmetric synapses are generally associated with what type of neuron?

Back 317

EXCITATORY post-synaptic

Front 318

6 classes of neurotransmitters

Back 318

Acetylcholine, amino acids, monoamines, peptides, purines, nitric oxide.

Front 319

Where are voltage-gated Na channels are concentrated in myelinated axons?

Back 319

Nodes of Ranvier

Front 320

Type A fiber

Back 320

1-20 micrometer, 15-120m/s (High velocity), Heavily myelinated, acute pain temperature touch pressure proprioception (GSA)
somatic effect fibers (GSE)

Front 321

Type B fibers

Back 321

1-3 micrometers, 3-15m/s (moderate velocity), myelinated, visceral afferents (GVA) preganglionic ANS (GVE)

Front 322

Type C fibers

Back 322

0.5-1.5 micrometers, 0.5-2m/s (slow velocity), unmyelinated, chronic pain (GVA) postganglionic ANS (GVE)

Front 323

Endoneurium

Back 323

loose connective tissue (reticular fibers) in fascicles. Blood vessels also in fascicles

Front 324

Perineurium

Back 324

dense irregular connective tissue surrounding fascicle.

Front 325

Epineurium

Back 325

bind nerve fascicles into one nerve trunk. dense irregular connective tissue.

Front 326

Site at which an axon ends on the muscle fiber

Back 326

neuromuscular, or myoneural, junction

Front 327

Flattened mound on the surface of the muscle fiber at the site of contact of the axon terminal

Back 327

motor end plate

Front 328

motor unit

Back 328

motor neuron, its axon, and muscle fiber.

Front 329

Fast-twitch muscle fibers have

Back 329

many long, branched sarcolemmal infoldings

Front 330

Slow-twitch muscle fibers have

Back 330

fewer and shallower sarcolemmal infoldings.

Front 331

Exoreceptors

Back 331

at or near the surface of the body

Front 332

Interoceptors

Back 332

blood vessels and viscera

Front 333

Mechanoreceptors

Back 333

mechanical pressure or stretching: touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, hearing, equilibrium, and blood pressure.

Front 334

Chemoreceptors

Back 334

taste, smell

Front 335

Thermoreceptors

Back 335

temperature

Front 336

Nociceptors

Back 336

physical or chemical damage to tissues; pain

Front 337

Naked nerve fibers (free nerve endings)

Back 337

Cornea (touch), skin and most connective tissue (pain)

Front 338

Nerve ending associated with Merkel cells (free nerve endings)

Back 338

Epidermis of skin, oral mucosa, and other sensitive epithelia (touch)

Front 339

Pacinian corpuscles (encapsulated)

Back 339

Subcutaneous tissue, joints, tendons, interosseous membranes, perimysium, mucous membranes, serous membranes, pancreas, heart, dermis, cornea (Deep pressure, vibration)

Front 340

Meissner's corpuscles (encapsulated)

Back 340

External genitalia, nipples, lips, connective tissue papillae, palmar surface of the hands and fingers, mucous membranes of eyelids (touch - tactile discrimination)

Front 341

Muscle spindles (encapsulated)

Back 341

Striated muscle cells (stretch reflex)

Front 342

All DRGs use what neurotransmitter?

Back 342

glutamate (main transmitter), which is excitatory.

May contain co-transmitters (calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP), substance P, and somatostatin.

Front 343

GSE, preganglionic GVE, and postganglionic parasympathetics use what neurotransmitter, typically?

Back 343

Acetylcholine

Front 344

Postganglionic sympathetics typically use what neurotransmitter?

Back 344

norepinephrine

Front 345

Modalities are

Back 345

various forms of perception (heat, cold, hearing, sight, taste, touch, smell, etc)

Front 346

Parasympathetic cranial nerves

Back 346

3,7,9,10

Front 347

Eccrine sweat glands (besides palms of hands and feet) use what neurotransmitter at the postganglionic neuron?

Back 347

Acetylcholine. Palms and feet use norepinephrine.

Front 348

Sensory ganglia are associated with cranial nerves ...

Back 348

5,7,8,9,10

Front 349

Sensory ganglia house

Back 349

unipolar cell bodies enveloped by flattened satellite cells

Front 350

All autonomic ganglia house

Back 350

multipolar cell bodies that are motor in function (smooth or cardiac muscle contraction, or glandular)

Front 351

Sympathetics synapse either in the

Back 351

sympathetic chain ganglia or the collateral ganglia along the abdominal aorta.

Front 352

Parasympathetics originate either

Back 352

CN3,7,9,10 or in S2-S4

Front 353

Parasympathetic CN synapse in one of the four terminal ganglia except

Back 353

10, where the terminal ganglia are located in the walls of the viscera.

Front 354

Ganglia of sensory neurons (no synapse in ganglia)

Back 354

DRG
Trigeminal ganglion of CN V
Geniculate ganglion of CN VII
Spiral ganglion (contains bipolar neurons) of CN VIII
Vestibular ganglion (contains bipolar neurons) of CN VIII
Sup and Inf ganglia of CN IX
Sup and Inf ganglia of CN X

Front 355

Ganglia of postsyn autonomic (synapses)

Back 355

Sympathetic:
Sympathetic chain ganglia
Prevertebral ganglia (celiac, sup and inf mesenteric, aorticorenal)
Parasympathetic:
Ciliary of CN III
Submandibular of CN VII
Pterygopalatine of CN VII
Otic of CN IX
Terminal intermural ganglia (includes Meissner's and Auerbach's plexuses)

Front 356

G protein coupled receptor is

Back 356

a single polypeptide with seven transmembrane segments.

Front 357

GTPase associated with transmitter and hormone receptors is called a heterotrimetic G protein because

Back 357

it is made up of alpha (GTPase), beta and gamma (regulatory)

Front 358

alpha subunit of Gs (stimulatory) binds to what enzyme?

Back 358

Adenylate cyclase and activates it

Front 359

alpha subunit of Gi (inhibitory) binds to what enzyme?

Back 359

adenylate cyclase and inhibits it

Front 360

alpha subunit of Gq binds to what enzyme?

Back 360

phospholipase C and stimulates it

Front 361

Adrenergic receptors are

Back 361

G protein coupled receptors which bind epi and norepi

Front 362

alpha-1 adrenergic receptor

Back 362

Gq, Inc PLC, Inc IP3 DAG, Inc Ca, Inc PKC

Front 363

alpha-2 adrenergic receptor

Back 363

Gi, dec AC, dec cAMP, dec PKA

Front 364

beta-1 adrenergic receptor

Back 364

Gs, inc AC, inc cAMP, inc PKA

Front 365

beta-2 adrenergic receptor

Back 365

Gs, inc AC, inc cAMP, inc PKA

Front 366

M1, M3, M5 muscarinic ACh receptors

Back 366

Gq, Inc PLC, Inc IP3 DAG, Inc Ca, Inc PKC

Front 367

M2, M4 muscarinic ACh receptors

Back 367

Dec AC, Dec cAMP, Dec PKA

Front 368

Cholera toxin causes

Back 368

excessive activation of Gs and leads to overproduction of cAMP.

Front 369

Pertussis toxin causes

Back 369

inhibition of Gi, leading to excessive production of cAMP.

Front 370

Two types of guanylate receptors

Back 370

Transmembrane (activated by peptide hormones - Atrial natriuretic peptide/factor ANP)

Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Receptor (activated by nitric oxide - target for anti-angina drugs: nitroglycerin)

Front 371

cGMP activates

Back 371

Protein Kinase G

Front 372

Soluble Guanylate Cyclase Receptor has

Back 372

2 domains: NO binding (heme) and Guanylate Cyclase domain.

Front 373

Neuropil is

Back 373

a region between neuronal cell bodies in the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord

Front 374

Aggregations of cell bodies embedded in gray matter are called

Back 374

nuclei (PNS counterparts are called ganglia)

Front 375

Grey matter consists of

Back 375

neuron cell bodies and glia

Front 376

White matter consists of

Back 376

myelinated axons and glia

Front 377

4 Subdivisions of white matter

Back 377

Tract or fasciculus...group of axons having specific function
Column or funiculus...aggregations of tracts
Lemniscus...bundle of sensory fibers in the brain
Peduncle...a band connective parts of the brain

Front 378

Lateral grey horns of the spinal chord are only present where?

Back 378

thoracic segments, contain the cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons.

Front 379

Four major parts of the brain

Back 379

1) Brainstem
2) Diencephalon
3) Cerebellum
4) Cerebrum

Front 380

Three parts of the brainstem

Back 380

1) medulla oblongata
2) pons
3) midbrain

Front 381

Cranial dura

Back 381

Outerlayer = dense irregular collagenous CT. Serve as periosteum, contains meningeal vessels.
Innerlayer = thinner fibrous tissue. Dural reflections (falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tertorium cerebelli)

Front 382

Spinal dura

Back 382

only the inner layer present. Separated from vertebral periosteum by epidural space.

Front 383

Arachnoid

Back 383

avascular, no collagen. (neural crest)
Outer layer = arachnoid membrane
Inner layer = arachnoid trabeculae, located in the subarachnoid space.

Front 384

Pia

Back 384

richly vascularized. Neural crest. Denticulate ligaments suspend spinal cord. Filum terminale anchors spinal cord to coccyx.

Front 385

Excitatory multipolar neurons communicate via

Back 385

glutamate or acetylcholine

Front 386

Inhibitory multipolar neurons communicate via

Back 386

GABA and/or glycine

Front 387

Golgi type I and II

Back 387

Type I = large cell body and long axon (local curcuit neurons)
Type II = small cell body and short axon (projection neurons)

Front 388

Neuron cell body pigments

Back 388

Lipofuscin and melanin

Front 389

Neurons that do not accumulate lipofuscin

Back 389

Perkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex

Front 390

True of False. Glial cells are capable of cell division throughout life

Back 390

True

Front 391

Two types of macroglia

Back 391

astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. All derived from neuroectoderm.

Front 392

Two types of astrocytes

Back 392

1) Fibrous astrocytes (white matter): contain GFAP
2) Protoplasmic astrocytes (gray matter): Muller cells and pituicytes.

Front 393

Functions of astrocytes

Back 393

Bind neurons to capillaries and pia mater.
Regulate K ion concentration
Form cellular scar tissue.
Brain tumers (gliomas)
Exhibit adrenergic receptors, amino acid receptors (GABA) and piptide receiptors (ANP, angiotensin II, endothelins, VIP, TRH).

Front 394

Oligodendrocytes

Back 394

Smaller than astrocytes, no IFs, numerous organelles and microtubules

Front 395

Functions of oligodendrocytes

Back 395

myelinization (white matter) and supporting network (gray matter)

Front 396

Microglia

Back 396

derived from mesoderm. Function = phagocytosis. Derived from monocytes.

Front 397

Ependyma

Back 397

derived from neuroectoderm. Epithelial glial cells.

Front 398

2 types of epenymal cells

Back 398

1) Ependymocytes: main type. cells attached to each other by gap junctions. striated border microvilli and cilia (facilitate movement of CSF)

2) Choroidal cells: secretory epithelium covering choroid plexus. Choroid plexuses are found in all four ventricles (sites of CSF production).

Front 399

Choroidal cells attach by

Back 399

tight junctions (blood-brain barrier)

Front 400

Circulating within the ventricular system and central canal is

Back 400

CSF

Front 401

CSF is produced continuously at a rate of

Back 401

400-500 mL/day

Front 402

Arachnoid villi represent

Back 402

sites of reabsorption of CSF.

Front 403

CNS consists of 3 fluid compartments

Back 403

1) vascular compartment
2) CSF compartment
3) neuronal (extracellular) compartment

Front 404

True or false. Dopamine, epi and norepi cannot cross the BBB.

Back 404

True. They must be synthesized in the brain.

Front 405

Areas of the brain without a BBB

Back 405

pituitary gland, median eminence, pineal gland, preoptic recess.

Front 406

CNS: Major dense line is due to

Back 406

P surface and Myelin Basic Protein (like in PNS)

Front 407

CNS: Intraperiod line is due to

Back 407

E surface and proteolipid protein (PLP). In PNS, Protein 0.

Front 408

Acetylcholine is always

Back 408

EXCITORY

Front 409

All somatic motor neurons release

Back 409

Acetylcholine

Front 410

Neurotransmitter and receptor type in ganglion

Back 410

ACh/nicotinic receptor (both parasympathetic and sympathetic)

Front 411

Receptor types in effector organs

Back 411

alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, beta-2 (sympathetic), muscarinic (parasympathetic), nicotinic (somatic)

Front 412

80% of parasympathetic outflow is through

Back 412

CN X

Front 413

Two types of terminal ganglia

Back 413

1) Cranial nerve head ganglia: ciliary, sphenopalatine, submandibular, otic

2) intramural ganglia

Front 414

Presynaptic sympathetic fibers are typically short except for

Back 414

fibers going to adrenal medulla.

Front 415

White ramus contains...
Gray ramus contains...

Back 415

myelinated, type B axons
unmyelinated, type C axons

Front 416

White rami can be found

Back 416

T1-L2

Front 417

Cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in

Back 417

the lateral horns of gray matter in L1-S2

Front 418

autonomic plexuses

Back 418

cardiac, pulmonary, celiac (solar), sup and inf mesenteric, hypogastric, renal plexuses

Front 419

Cholinergic neurons release

Back 419

acetylcholine. Receptors for ACh are called cholinoreceptors

Front 420

Adrenergic neurons release

Back 420

norepinephrine

Front 421

Two types of cholinergic receptors

Back 421

Nicotinic and muscarinic

Front 422

Nicotinic receptors are present in

Back 422

in dendrites and cell bodies of sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons (ANS ganglia), motor end plate at NM junction, and adrenal medulla. Blocked by hexamethonium.

Front 423

True or False. Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic receptors.

Back 423

True

Front 424

Muscarinic receptors are

Back 424

in all effectors (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands) innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic axons. Blocked by atropine. Metabotropic receptors.

Front 425

True or False. Effects triggered by adrenergic neurons typically are longer than those triggered by cholinergic neurons.

Back 425

True

Front 426

Activation of alpha-1 and beta-1 receptors generall produces

Back 426

excitation

Front 427

Activation of alpha-2 and beta-2 receptors causes

Back 427

inhibition

Front 428

Alpha-1 receptors are found

Back 428

smooth muscle fibers in blood vessels
sweat glands on palms and soles

Front 429

Beta-1 receptors are found in

Back 429

cardiac muscle fibers
adipocytes

Front 430

Beta-2 receptors are found in

Back 430

smooth muscle in walls of airways

Front 431

In CNS:
norepinephrine stored in ...
acetylcholine stored in ...

Back 431

small dense-core vesicles
small clear vesicles

Front 432

Balance between symp and parasymp is regulated by

Back 432

hypothalamus

Front 433

Fight-or-flight response (4 E's)

Back 433

Exercise
Emergency
Excitement
Embarrassment

More widespread and longer lasting than parasymp response. Norepi broken down slower than ACh.

Front 434

Parasymp rest-and-digest (SLUDD)

Back 434

Salivation
Lacrimation
Urination
Digestion
Defecation

Decreased heart rate
Decreased airway diameter
Decreased pupil diameter

Front 435

Sympathetic actions are

Back 435

inc HR, inc contactility, inc AV node conduction, constricts blood vessels, dilates bronchiolar smooth muscle, ejaculation, inc sweating, inc renin secretion, inc lipolysis

Front 436

Parasympathetic actions are

Back 436

dec HR, dec contractility, dec AV node conduction, increased GI motility, constricts bronchiolar smooth muscle, erection

Front 437

Hypothalamus regulates

Back 437

temperature regulation, thirst, food intake, micturition, breathing, and cardiovascular activity.

Front 438

Medulla contains nuclei that control

Back 438

cardiovascular center, basic rhythm of breathing, vomiting, coughing, swallowing, hiccupping, and sneezing.

Front 439

Pons contains

Back 439

pneumotaxic and apneustic areas.

Front 440

Maximal heart rate

Back 440

= 220 - age

Front 441

Types of Ca channels

Back 441

LNPQRT

Front 442

Theshold potential is

Back 442

-55mV

Front 443

Action potential peaks at

Back 443

+30mV

Front 444

Absolute refractory period refers to:

Back 444

Once an action potential is initiated, it takes a short amount of time before the next action potential can be generated.

Front 445

Membrane potential vs Time.

Back 445

Positive slope means: Na+ or Ca++ influx and/or Cl- efflux

Negative slope means: K+ efflux and/or Cl- influx

Front 446

Bleed into brain can cause

Back 446

depolarization of brain cells because blook [K+] is 1.6 greater than CSF [K+]. Can cause seizures.

Front 447

Novacaine blocks

Back 447

opening of voltage-dependent Na+ channels. Dangerous in circulation because they work on ALL Na+ channels (heart).

Front 448

Ethanol blocks

Back 448

both Na+ and K+ channels

Front 449

Tetradotoxin blocks

Back 449

only Na+ channels. Most dangerous toxin. On ingestion, first affects phrenic nerve.

Front 450

Tetraethyl-ammonium ("TEA"), 4-aminopyridine, and dendrotoxin block

Back 450

only K+ channels

Front 451

Halothane opens

Back 451

a special type of K+ channel-->increased K+ current --> hyperpolarize a firing neuron --> inhibit this neuron

Front 452

Ionotropic = ...
Metabotropic = ...

Back 452

chemically-gated ion channel
elicits 2nd-messenger cascades

Front 453

Cocaine blocks

Back 453

dopamine reuptake

Front 454

EPSP are ...
IPSP are ...

Back 454

depolarizing
hyperpolarizing

Front 455

EPSP are caused by the flow of ...
IPSP are caused by the flow of ...

Back 455

Na+
K+ or Cl-

Front 456

Fast EPSPs or IPSPs are capable of ...
Slow EPSPs or IPSPs are capable of ...

Back 456

eliciting action potentials
suppressing action potential generation

Front 457

Receptor desensitization

Back 457

When a ligand-gated receptor is exposed to the ligand, it sensitivity to that ligand DECREASES (succinylcholine).

Front 458

Receptor Down-regulation

Back 458

Postsynaptic receptors decrease in density

Front 459

End Plate Potential

Back 459

EPSP @ the neuromuscular junction = summation of 50-100 smaller components ("miniature EPPs")

Front 460

Radiculopathy (compression neuropathy of lower-back pain)

Back 460

pressure on sensory axons projecting into spinal cord. Due to herniated intervertebral disk.

Front 461

Multiple Sclerosis

Back 461

Demyelinating disease. Treated with 1) immunosuppression (interferon-beta) 2) increase action potential duration (4-aminopyridine) 3) rewrap the myelin (stem cells???)

Front 462

Common MS symptom

Back 462

Internuclear ophthalmoplegia. unilateral CN 3,4,6 demyelination.

Front 463

Diagnostic tools

Back 463

ECG, EMG, EEG, EP, ERP, Peripheral Nerve conduction velocity

Front 464

5 special senses

Back 464

taste, smell, vision, hearing, and balance

Front 465

2 classes of receptors

Back 465

Neuronal receptors - sensory nerve ending received the stimulus directly and fires an action potential

Epithelial receptors - specialized epithelial cells that generate a receptor potential which causes release of neurotransmitters.

Front 466

True or False. Olfactory receptors are bipolar neurons.

Back 466

True

Front 467

The eyeball consists of ...

Back 467

1) three coats (tunics): fibrous tunic, vascular tunic (uvea), and retinal tunic
2) three chambers: anterior chamber, posterior chamber, and vitreous chamber
3) four refractive media: cornea, lens, aqueous humor, and vitreous body.

Front 468

Sclera

Back 468

white of eye. dense connective tissue, type I collagen, avascular, receives insertions of the extraocular eye muscles.

Front 469

Cornea

Back 469

transparent, highly innervated, avascular.

Front 470

Canal of Schlemm

Back 470

where aqueous humor drain from the anterior chamber of the eye.

Front 471

5 layers of the cornea

Back 471

1) Anterior epithelium
2) Anterior limiting membrane of Bowman
3) Substantia Propria
4) Posterior limiting membrane of Descemet
5) Posterior epithelium

Front 472

Cornea: Anterior epithelium

Back 472

stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium. microfolds and microvilli trap moisture preventing dehydration. many free nerve endings.

Front 473

Cornea: Anterior limiting membrane of Bowman

Back 473

Noncellular layer. Type I collagen

Front 474

Cornea: Substantia propria

Back 474

forms 90% of cornea. Blood vessels not present. 200-250 regular lamellae of type I collagen fibers (also type V).

Front 475

Cornea: Posterior limiting membrane of Descemet

Back 475

basement membrane of posterior epithelium

Front 476

Cornea: Posterior epithelium

Back 476

simple squamous epithelium with pinocytotic vesicles and mitochondria; joined by tight junctions. many Na pumps maintain cornea in a dehydrated state.

Front 477

Eye: Fibrous tunic consists of

Back 477

Sclera and Cornea

Front 478

Eye: Vascular tunic consists of

Back 478

Choroid, ciliary body, and iris.

Front 479

Choroid

Back 479

highly vascular, pigmented (melanocytes) layer. Choriocapillaries (dense network of large fenestrated capillaries) supplies nutrients to the outer five layers of the retina.

Front 480

Choriocapillaris is separated from the retina by

Back 480

Bruch's membrane (center is composed of elastic fibers; on each side of the elastic core is a basement membrane)

Front 481

Cilliary body

Back 481

wedge-shaped anterior expansion of the choroid.
Inner surface is lined by two layers of simple columnar epithelium (outer, pigmented (melanin) and inner, nonpigmented)

Front 482

Ciliary processes

Back 482

covered by 2 epithelial layers. Inner, nonpigmented layer forms the aqueous humor, have tight junctions forming blood-aqueous barrier. Have suspensory ligaments of the lens (zonule fibers) composed of fibrillin, anchors lens.

Front 483

Ciliary muscle

Back 483

smooth muscle, contraction permits the lens to become thicker (accomodation). Parasympathetic of CN III.

Front 484

Iris

Back 484

every iris is unique. convered by incomplete layer of pigmented cells and fibroblasts on its anterior surface

Front 485

Dilator pupillae muscle

Back 485

consists of myoepithelial cells. contract upon stimulation by sympathetic fibers, dilating the pupil.

Front 486

Sphincter pupillae muscle

Back 486

smooth muscle contracts upon stimulation by parasympathetic fibers of CN III. Constrict pupil

Front 487

Refractive media of the eye

Back 487

Aqueous humor, lens, vitreous body

Front 488

Aqueous humor

Back 488

plasma-like fluid in anterior chamber formed by nonpigmented cells lining ciliary processes. secreted into posterior chamber, through pupil into anterior chamber then down canal of Schlemm.

Front 489

Lens

Back 489

ALL epithelium, biconvex transparent flexible composed of lens capsule, subcapsular epithelium, and lens fibers.

Front 490

Lens fibers

Back 490

lack nuclei and organelles when mature. filled with crystallins which increase refractory index of the lens fibers.

Front 491

Vitreous body

Back 491

thick refractile gel (water, collagen, hyaluronic acid) in vitreous cavity. no turnover. contains hyaloid canal (fetal hyaloid artery)

Front 492

Point of highest visual acuity

Back 492

Fovea centralis - all cones

Front 493

Nonphotosensitive retina

Back 493

lies anterior to the ora serrata consists of Iridial (pigmented apex to apex) an Ciliary retina (outer pigmented, inner nonpigmented).

double layer of epithelial cells have 3 functions: produce aqueous humor, form blood-aqueous barrier, secreting and anchoring of zonule fibers.

Front 494

Photosensitive retina has 10 layers:

Back 494

1) Pigment epithelium
2) Layer of rods and cones
3) Outer limiting membrane
4) Outer nuclear layer
5) Outer plexiform layer
6) Inner nuclear layer
7) Inner plexiform layer
8) Ganglion layer
9) Optic nerve fiber layer
10) Inner limiting membrane

Front 495

PS Retina: Pigmented epithelium

Back 495

columnar cells attached to Bruch's membrane. tight junctions (blood-retinal barrier), basal infoldings, SER (esterify VitA), melanin granules, processes interdigitate with rods and cones.
During the day, melanin granules migrate into cell processes; migrate to apical cytoplasm at night. Phagocytose out segments of rods, synthesize melanin.

Front 496

PS Retina: Layer of rods and cones

Back 496

Rods: low intensity light, synapse with bipolar neurons. Outer segment shed disks. Rhodopsin = opsin (IMP) + cis-retinal. 11-cis-retinal --> 11-trans-retinal (dissociates from opsin). Opsin facilitates the binding of GTP to alpha-subunit of transducin --> activation cGMP phosphodiesterase --> closes Na+ channels --> hyperpolarization

Front 497

PS Retina: Cones

Back 497

only photosensitive cells found in the fovea centralis.
Similar to rods except:
1) apical terminal shaped like cone
2) outer segment has invaginations
3) synthesized proteins are passed to the ENTIRE outer segment.
4) [Iodopsin] varies -->RGB
5) Single cone synapse w/ single bipolar neuron.

Front 498

PS Retina: Outer limiting membrane

Back 498

NOT membrane but zonula adherens netween photoreceptor cells and Muller cells.

Front 499

PS Retina: Outer nuclear layer

Back 499

Nuclei of rods and cones

Front 500

PS Retina: Outer plexiform layer

Back 500

Axodendritic synapses between axons of photoreceptor cells and dendrites of bipolar and horizontal cells.

Front 501

PS Retina: Inner nuclear layer

Back 501

cell bodies of bipolar neurons, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells and the nuclei of Muller cells.

Front 502

PS Retina: Inner plexiform layer

Back 502

Axodendritic synapses between axons of bipolar neurons and dendrites of ganglion cells. Processes of amacrine cells.

Front 503

PS Retina: Ganglion cell layer (absent in fovea centralis)

Back 503

Cell bodies of ganglion cells (large multipolar sensory neurons that project axon into optic disk, activated by hyperpolarization of rods and cones --> AP transmitted to horizontal and amacrine cells.)

Front 504

PS Retina: Optic nerve fiber layer

Back 504

unmyelinated axons of ganglion cells, form the fibers of the optic nerve, pierces sclera at the optic disk (acquire myelin sheath).

Front 505

PS Retina: Inner limiting membrane

Back 505

consists of terminations of Muller cell processes and their basement membranes. Separates retina from vitreous body.

Front 506

Detachment of retina

Back 506

occurs when the neural and pigmented retinae become separated from each other. It can be treated successfully by laser surgery.

Front 507

Outer ear

Back 507

Auricle (pinna), External auditory meatus, tympanic membrane.

Front 508

Middle ear

Back 508

tympanic cavity, oval and round windows, ossicles

Front 509

Inner ear

Back 509

bony labyrinth, membranous labyrinth

Front 510

Bony labyrinth

Back 510

houses membranous labyrinth, filled with perilymph (similar to extracellular fluid, low protein)

Front 511

Semicircular canals

Back 511

house semicircular ducts

Front 512

Vestibule

Back 512

houses saccule and utricle

Front 513

Cochlea

Back 513

2.5 winds around modiolus (bony core) containing blood vessels and spiral ganglion. The bony spiral lamina is the lateral extension of the modiolus. Subdivided into 3 spaces (scala vestibuli and scala tympani [perilymph], scala media (cochlear duct) [endolymph])

Front 514

Membranous labyrinth

Back 514

Endolymph, utricle, saccule, semicircular ducts, endolymphatic duct, endolymphatic sac, scala media (cochlear duct)

Front 515

Utricle and Saccule

Back 515

located in the vestibule, possess maculae w/ 2 types of hair cells.

Front 516

Vestibular hair cells

Back 516

stereocilia and kinocilium.
Type I = bulbar, round nucleus
Type II = columnar, round basal nucleus

Front 517

Otolithic membrane

Back 517

thick, gelatinous layer. contains otoliths. static equilibrium. linear acceleration. vestibular division of CN VIII -> bipolar neurons

Front 518

Semicircular ducts

Back 518

Ampullae- dilated regions
Cristae - specialized sensory regions, similar to maculae but have thicker, cone-shaped glycoprotein layer called cupula (no otoliths). dynamic equilibrium - rotational movement. angular acceleration. neurotransmitter = glutamate.

Front 519

Stereocilia moving toward kinocilium = ...
Steriocilia moving away from kinocilium = ...

Back 519

stimulatory
inhibitory

Front 520

Endolymphatic sac is functions in

Back 520

reabsorbing endolymph

Front 521

Cochlear duct (scala media)

Back 521

specialized diverticulum of the saccule that contains the spiral organ of Corti. Bordered by scala vestibuli(above) and scala tympani(below). These scalae, which contain perilymph, communicate with each other at the helicotrema, located at the apex of the cochlea.

Front 522

Vestibular (Reissner's) membrane

Back 522

composed of 2 layers of flattened squamous epithelium separated by basement membrane. Helps maintain the high ionic gradients between the perilymph in the scala vestibuli and the endolymph in the cochlear duct.

Front 523

Stria vascularis

Back 523

vascularized pseudostratified epithelium that lines the lateral aspect of the cochlear duct, secretes endolymph.

Front 524

Spiral prominence

Back 524

epithelium-covered protuberance that extends the length of the cochlear duct.

Front 525

Basilar membrane

Back 525

thick later of amorphous material that extends from the spiral ligament to the spiral limbus.

Front 526

Tectorial membrane

Back 526

projects over the organ of Corti from the spiral limbus. Its free end points to the outer lateral wall of the cochlear duct. Makes contact with the stereocilia of the hair cells.

Front 527

Spiral organ of Corti

Back 527

lies on the basilar membrane, displays the inner tunnel of Corti, composed of hair cells and various supporting cells.

Front 528

Spiral organ of Corti: Hair cells

Back 528

Inner hair cells - 95% of hearing, single row along entire length of cochlear duct.
Outer hair cells - 3-5 rows.

Reception of sound. A tip link protein connects the tip to stereocilium to mechanically gated ion channel (transduction channel) - allow K+ to enter the hair cell, depolarizing -> open Ca++ channels in the base. Releases glutamate.

Front 529

Spiral organ of Corti: Inner and outer pillar cells

Back 529

rest on the basilar membrane, enclose and support the inner tunnel of Corti.

Front 530

Spiral organ of Corti: Inner and outer phalangeal cells

Back 530

tight junctions, cup-shaped apices cradle hair cells -> do not reach free surface of organ of Corti. Phalangeal process extends to the reticular lamina.

Front 531

Function of inner ear

Back 531

Movement of stapes @ oval window causes disturbances in perilymph -> deflect basilar membrane -> oval window -> round window.

Low freq are detected farther away from the oval window. High freq detected near oval window.

Front 532

Pillar cells attached to the basilar membrane

Back 532

move laterally in response to deflection, causing a lateral shearing of the stereocilia of the organ of Corti against the tectorial membrane -> electrical impulses via cochlear nerve.

Front 533

Vestibular function

Back 533

flow of endolymph in semicircular ducts (circular movement) or in saccules and utricles (linear movement).

Front 534

Movement of endolymph in semicircular ducts

Back 534

displaces cupula overlying the cristae, causing bending of the stereocilia.

Front 535

Movement of endolymph in the saccules and utricles

Back 535

displaces otoliths, transmitted to maculae via gelatinous later, bends stereocilia, electrical impulses via vestibular nerve.

Front 536

All three muscle types are derived from mesoderm except for

Back 536

muscles of the iris and arrector pili.

Front 537

Skeletal muscles develop from the mesoderm of somites except for

Back 537

skeletal muscles of the head and limbs.

Front 538

Cardiac muscle develops from

Back 538

mesodermal cells that migrate there.

Front 539

4 key functions of muscle

Back 539

1) Body movements
2) Stabilizing
3) Storing and moving substances
4) Generating heat

Front 540

5 special properties of muscle

Back 540

1) Irritability
2) Conductivity
3) Contractility
4) Extensibility
5) Elasticity

Front 541

Muscle cell is synonymous with

Back 541

muscle fiber

Front 542

Three layers of connective tissue extend from the deep fascia

Back 542

1)epimysium, outermost, major vascular and nerve supply of the muscle penetrates the epimysium. Dense, irregular type I, fibroblasts.

2) Perimysium, 10-100 fibers (fascicles = functional units). Dense, irregular type I, fibroblasts.

3) endomysium, loose CT, reticular fibers. Only capillaries and finest neuronal branches

Front 543

Diameter of mature muscle fiber.
Length of muscle fiber.

Back 543

10-100 micrometers
10-30 centimeters

Front 544

Skelatal muscle fibers are

Back 544

long, cylindrical, multinuscleated, enveloped by external lamina and reticular fibers. Formed by fusion of myoblasts --> myotube (a syncytium) = does not contract.

Front 545

T (transverse) tubules

Back 545

deep tubular invaginations of the sarcolemma extending into the center of the muscle fiber. Open to the outside of the fiber (interstitial fluid). Ensures that AP excites all parts of the muscle fiber at almost the same instant.

Front 546

Myofibrils are

Back 546

cylindrical units (1-2 micrometers diameter) extending the entire length of the fiber. Alignment results in characteristic banding pattern (dark A bands, light I bands, dark Z disks.

Front 547

Sarcoplasm holds

Back 547

beta-glycogen, lots of mitochondria, myoglobin.

Front 548

Occupy 80% of sarcoplasm

Back 548

myofibrils

Front 549

Myofibrils are built from three kinds of proteins

Back 549

1) contractile proteins
2) regulatory proteins
3) structural proteins

Front 550

Myofibrils are held in alignment by the intermediate filaments of

Back 550

desmin

Front 551

Desmin filaments encircle the

Back 551

Z disks of the myofibrils and are linked to the Z disk and to each other by plectin filaments.

Front 552

Boundary of the sarcomere

Back 552

Z disk

Front 553

Length of sarcomere

Back 553

2.25 micrometers

Front 554

Only source of Ca++ in skeletal muscle

Back 554

Sarcoplasmic reticulum = smooth ER

Front 555

Triads are

Back 555

only found in skeletal muscle. Specialized complexes consisting of a narrow central T tubule flanked on each side by terminal cisternae of the SR.
Located at the A-I junction. Function to provide uniform contraction throughout muscle fibers.

Front 556

Terminal cisternae are

Back 556

sarcoplasmic reticulum which encircle myofibrils at the A-I junction.

Front 557

Calsequestin is

Back 557

present in the lumen of the terminal cisternae, low-affinity for Ca,

Front 558

Myofilaments are

Back 558

thick filaments + thin filaments

Front 559

Muscle: Satellite cells

Back 559

significant in muscle maintenance, repair, and regeneration

Front 560

A band
I band
H band
M line
Z disc

Back 560

A band = thick filament + thin filament
I hand = thin filament
H band = thick filament
M lines = mid-line
Z disc = delimits sarcomeres, alpha-actinin + nebulin

During muscle contraction, H and I bands disappear.

Front 561

Microfilament is composed of

Back 561

F actin. has myosin binding site

Front 562

Tropomyosin

Back 562

extends for a length of 7 actin monomers, binds troponin complex.

Front 563

Troponin is

Back 563

associated with tropomyosin, composed of Troponin T(bind tropomyosin),C(binds calcium),I(binds actin - inhibits interaction of myosin and actin)

Front 564

alpha-actinin is

Back 564

short, bipolar, rod-shaped actin-binding protein. bindles thin filaments into parallel arrays and anchors them at the Z disk.

Front 565

Nebulin is

Back 565

an elongated, inelastic protein associated with thin filaments, inserts into Z disk and runs parallel to the thin filaments, helps alpha-actinin anchor thin filaments to Z disks and acts as a template for determining the length of actin filaments.

Front 566

Cap Z

Back 566

binds for the plus end of the thin filaments. The thin filament (+) ends are anchored in the Z disc, which is built from CapZ and alpha-actinin.

Front 567

Tropomodulin caps

Back 567

the minus end of the thin filaments

Front 568

Dystrophin (largest known human gene) links

Back 568

thin filaments to integral membrane proteins of the sarcolemma. reinforce and stabilize the sarcolemma during stress of muscle contraction.

Front 569

Thick filaments are made of

Back 569

myosin II, myomesin, titin, C protein

Front 570

Titin

Back 570

anchors the thick filaments to the Z discs.

Front 571

Slow oxidative fibers

Back 571

Postural muscles, maintain posture and aerobic endurance activities.

Front 572

Fast Glycolytic fibers

Back 572

Upper limbs, rapid intense movements of short duration (wright lifting, sprinting)

Front 573

Sarcolemma is depolarized at the

Back 573

myoneural junction, spreads via T tubules.

Front 574

Muscle power stroke is triggered with

Back 574

the release of the phosphate group

Front 575

4 steps of skeletal muscle contraction

Back 575

1) Myosin (with ATP bound) hydrolyzes ATP and becomes reoriented and energized
2) Myosin heads bind to actin, forming crossbridges
3) Myosin heads rotate toward center of the sarcomere (power stroke)
4) As myosin heads bind ATP, the crossbridges detach from actin.

Front 576

Phosphocreatine kinase

Back 576

is an enzyme located at the M line and provides quick burst (9 seconds) of energy (transfer phosphate group to ADP)

Front 577

End plate potential is

Back 577

not an ACTION POTENTIAL but is the value about halfway between the equilibrium potentials for Na+ and K+ (0mV).

Front 578

Growth of skeletal muscle after birth is due to

Back 578

hypertrophy (not hyperplasia)

Front 579

Cardiac muscle fiber

Back 579

accumulates lipofuscin with age. T tubules are located at the Z disks, not the A-I junction. Cardiac = diads (T tubule and 1 SR), not triads.

Front 580

2 sources of Ca in cardiac muscle.

Back 580

SR and extracellular space. Extracellular calcium levels affect the heartbeat.

Front 581

Cardiac muscle mitochondria are

Back 581

larger and have many more cristae

Front 582

2 portions of the intercalated disks

Back 582

Transverse portions (fascia adherens, desmosomes)
Lateral portions (jap junctions) --> functional syncytium.

Front 583

Only example of mesoderm derived cell which produce peptide hormone and not steroid hormone

Back 583

Atrial cardiac muscle fibers. Contain atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP). Both are diuretics and act to decrease reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidneys; inhibits renin release by the kidneys; decreases blood pressure.

Front 584

Cardiac heart beat initiates

Back 584

in the heart but is modulated by the ANS

Front 585

Cardiac muscle regeneration

Back 585

does not occur

Front 586

Cardiac hypertrophy is due to

Back 586

increased workload. Cardiac muscle fibers become longer and thicker.

Front 587

Smooth muscle

Back 587

No striations, no T tubules, ANS

Front 588

2 types of smooth muscle

Back 588

1) Visceral (single-unit) smooth muscle. Gap junctions. Stimulation of 1 fiber propagates to many.
2) Multiunit smooth muscle. Few gap junctions. 1 fiber stimulation = 1 fiber contraction.

Front 589

Visceral (single-unit) smooth muscle is found

Back 589

Valls of small arteries and veins and of hollow organs such as stomach, intestines, uterus, and urinary bladder.

Front 590

Multiunit smooth muscle is found

Back 590

walls of large arteries, vas deferens, airways to the lungs, arrector pili muscles, muscles of the iris that adjust pupillary diameter, and in the ciliary body that adjusts focus of the lens.

Front 591

Smooth muscle not only contracts but synthesizes

Back 591

extracellular proteins including type III collagen, elastin, GAGs, proteoglycans, external lamina, and growth factors.

Front 592

Smooth muscle caveolae are

Back 592

invaginations of the sarcolemma and act as T tubules.

Front 593

Souce of calcium for smooth muscle is from

Back 593

extracellular fluid

Front 594

True or False. SER in smooth muscle is sparse.

Back 594

True

Front 595

"Z disks" in smooth muscle are called

Back 595

dense bodies. formed of alpha-actinin

Front 596

Contracted smooth muscle has what shape nucleus

Back 596

corkscrew

Front 597

Initiation of smooth muscle contraction varies by type

Back 597

1) vascular smooth muscle...by a nerve impulse
2) visceral smooth muscle...by stretching of the muscle
3) smooth muscle of the uterus...by oxytocin
4) smooth muscle elsewhere...by epinephrine

Front 598

Type of neural component of the smooth muscle synapse

Back 598

en passant(in passing) - neurotransmitter is released along the length of the axon. Innervated by both SNS and PNS.

Front 599

True or False. Smooth muscle can regenerate.

Back 599

True. They retain their mitotic capability, hyperplasia.

Front 600

Comparison between muscle tissue

Back 600

see page 34-27

Front 601

Muscle cell is synonymous with

Back 601

muscle fiber

Front 602

Formation of myofibrils

Back 602

myocytes fuse --> syncytial myotube --> myofibrils

Front 603

The length of the A band at rest

Back 603

1.65 micrometers

Front 604

In the center of the H zone is

Back 604

the M line

Front 605

Skeletal muscle organization from whole muscle to myofilaments

Back 605

Whole muscle-->fasciculus-->muscle fiber-->myofibril-->sarcomeres-->
myofilaments

Front 606

Thick filament is made up of

Back 606

myosin = non covalently linked light and heavy chains

Front 607

Myosin is cleaved by 2 enzymes

Back 607

trypsin (light meromyosin [tail] + heavy meromyosin [heads])
pepsin further cleaves heavy meromyosin (S1 [fist] + S2 [forearm])

Front 608

Thin filaments are made up of

Back 608

actin, tropomyosin and troponin

Front 609

For polymerization of F-actin to occur, what needs to bind?

Back 609

ATP binds to G-actin

Front 610

Tropomyosin covers how many G-actin monomers?

Back 610

7

Front 611

Troponin has 3 subunits

Back 611

TnT: tropomyosin binding
TnC: calcium binding
TnI: actin binding, inhibits myosin from binding to actin.

Front 612

4 step to skeletal muscle contraction (starting with myosin head bound to actin)

Back 612

1) ATP binds to myosin head, detaches myosin and actin
2) ATP->ADP+Pi, myosin undergoes conformational change [reaches out about 10 nm]
3) myosin head attaches to actin filament (loses Pi)
4) ADP dissociates, pulls actin about 10 nm, back to step 1.

Front 613

When no ATP is available to bind to myosin, this causes

Back 613

rigor

Front 614

Passive length curve is due to

Back 614

muscle stretching (skeletal muscle is quite elastic)

Front 615

Slower repolarization in the muscle action potential is due to

Back 615

slower kinetics of the delayed rectifying K channel

Front 616

Long tail depolarization in skeletal muscles is due to

Back 616

T tubules. K+ accumulates in the lumen of the T tubules, shifting the K+ equilibrium potential.

Front 617

Where do T tubules occur in skelatal muscle?

Back 617

At the A-I junction

Front 618

A triad is made up of

Back 618

2 terminal cisternae and a T tubule

Front 619

The terminal cisternae, lateral sacs (intermediate cisternae) and fenestrated collar collectively constitute ...

Back 619

The sarcoplasmic reticulum

Front 620

After skeletal muscle contraction, the lateral sacs and fenestrated collar serves to

Back 620

re-sequester the cytoplasmic calcium.

Front 621

In skeletal muscle, much of the calcium in the SR lumen is bound to

Back 621

calsequesterin (binds 43 Ca++ per molecule)

Front 622

In skeletal muscle, calcium is pumped into the SR via

Back 622

Ca ATPase

Front 623

Upon depolarization of the T tubular membrane, dihydropyridine receptors deform and

Back 623

exerts a mechanical force on the calcium release channel causing it to open.

Front 624

Muscle can undergo 2 types of contraction

Back 624

1) Isomeric (equal length)
2) Isotonic (equal force)

Front 625

In muscle contraction:
temporal summation refers to...
spatial summation refers to...

Back 625

frequency of nerve impulses to muscle
activation of more motor units

Front 626

True or False. Total cardiac muscle tension increases monotonically with length.

Back 626

True

Front 627

3 roles of extracellular calcium in cardiac muscle

Back 627

1) directly activate muscle contraction, although small
2) triggers Ca-release from SR (Ca-induced Ca release)
3) increases the amount of Ca in the SR and thereby increases the force of contraction over time.

Front 628

Positive inotropic effect is

Back 628

an increase in the force of cardiac muscle contraction (e.g. Ca-channel blockers, digitalis = Na pump inhibiter)

Front 629

Calcium is 1)resequestered to the SR and 2)pumped out to extracellular space by

Back 629

1)Ca pump
2)Ca/Na exchanger

Front 630

Inibits Na pump and increases cardiac contractility

Back 630

digitalis, cardiac glycoside

Front 631

Ratio of thin/thick filaments in 1)smooth muscle and 2)skeletal muscle

Back 631

1) 15:1
2) 2:1

Front 632

This type of smooth muscle is most common. Cells are electrically coupled to one another and can undergo spontaneous contraction, depolarized by stretch

Back 632

Unitary smooth muscle

Front 633

This type of smooth muscle does not contract spontaneously, has more direct innervation and does not react to stretch. Examples are vas deferens(ejaculation) and pilomotor muscles (goosebumps) of the skin.

Back 633

Multi-unit smooth muscle

Front 634

Smooth muscle latch state is characterized by

Back 634

a reduced crossbridge cycling rate but high, maintained force.

Front 635

Source of calcium in smooth muscle contraction is

Back 635

largely extracellular

Front 636

Submembrane vacuoles in smooth muscle which houses SOME calcium

Back 636

caveoli

Front 637

In smooth muscle, troponin is absent and smooth muscle contraction is activated by

Back 637

calcium binding to calmodulin

Front 638

In contrast to skeletal muscle, control of smooth muscle contraction resides with

Back 638

myosin filament, not the actin filament

Front 639

Steps of smooth muscle contraction

Back 639

1) Calcium binds to calmodulin
2) activates myosin light chain kinase which phosphorylates myosin.
3) phosphorylated myosin interacts with actin and contraction ensues.

Front 640

von Willebrand factor (associated with factor VIII) is stored in...

Back 640

Weibel-Palade bodies of arterial endothelial cells.

Front 641

Vascular smooth muscle secretes

Back 641

elasin

Front 642

In vasculature, fibroblasts secrete 1) what type of collagens? 2) Main GAG in arteries? 3) Main GAG in veins?

Back 642

1) Type I and III
2) Chondroitin sulfate
3) Dermatan sulfate

Front 643

All vessels except capillaries are innervated by

Back 643

sympathetic nervous system. Norepinephrine causes vasocontriction.

Front 644

von Willebrand disease is associated with

Back 644

prolonged coagulation times

Front 645

Vessels have 3 concentric tunics

Back 645

1) Tunica intima
2) Tunica media
3) Tunica adventitia

Front 646

In arteries, the intima is separated from the media by a fenestrated layer of elastin called the

Back 646

internal elastic lamina (obvious in muscular arteries and arterioles)

Front 647

Tunica media consists mainly of

Back 647

vascular smooth muscle

Front 648

Larger arteries often exhibit what between the media and the adventitia?

Back 648

an external elastic lamina

Front 649

Tunica adventitia consists mainly of

Back 649

type I collagen and elastic fibers

Front 650

In veins, which layer is the thickest?

Back 650

Tunica adventitia

Front 651

In large vessels, the adventitia contains small blood vessels called

Back 651

vasa vasorum that supply oxygen and nutrients to the cells in the vessel wall.

Front 652

4 types of arteries

Back 652

1) elastic (conducting)
2) muscular (distributing)
3) arterioles
4) metaterioles

Front 653

Properties of elastic arteries

Back 653

thick tunica media, 40-60 elastic lamina, pressure reservoir, vasa vasorum. eg aorta, brachiocephalic, common corotid, subclavian, vertebral, pulmonary, common illiac

Front 654

Properties of muscular arteries

Back 654

thick tunica media, 30-40 layers of smooth muscle (can be as little as 3-4), prominent internal elastic lamina, vasa vasorum, most named arteries (eg brachial, radial)

Front 655

properties of arterioles

Back 655

terminal vessels of the arteriole system, 1-3 layers of smooth muscle in tunica media, prominent internal elastic lamina, key in regulating blood flow (peripheral resistance)

Front 656

Vasoconstriction primarily involves

Back 656

arterioles (sympathetic nerve fibers)

Front 657

Vasodilation occurs when

Back 657

sympathetic stimulation decreases (small affect due to parasympathetic)

Front 658

True or False. Tunica media is thicker in the lower extremities than in the upper extremities.

Back 658

True

Front 659

True or False. Longitudinal smooth muscle bundles accomodate the repeated bending of arteries in areas such as the elbow.

Back 659

True

Front 660

True or False. Near the heart, the roots of vessels may have cardiac muscle in the tunica media.

Back 660

True

Front 661

Arteries that do not anastomose are known as

Back 661

end arteries

Front 662

Blood flow is slowest in the

Back 662

capillaries

Front 663

Capillary endothelial cells are generally joined by

Back 663

fascia occludens, desmosomes, and gap junctions

Front 664

3 types of capillaries

Back 664

1) continuous (lack pores, have basal lamina, pericytes, do transcytosis)
2) fenestrated (most common, pores 60-80nm w/ diaphragm, basal lamina, no pericytes)
3) sinusoidal (NOT sinusoids, pores without diaphragms 30-40micrometers)

Front 665

Metabolic functions of endothelial cells of capillaries

Back 665

1) Deactivation of pharm. substances such as bradykinin, serotonin, thrombin, norepi, prostaglandins
2) Breakdown of lipoproteins
3) Release of prostacyclin
4) Conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II
5) Metabolism of vasoactive factors

Front 666

Continuous capillaries are found

Back 666

1) Muscle
2) Fat
3) Bone
4) Connective Tissue
5) CNS
6) BBB
7) Lung
8) Spleen
9) Thymus
10) Gonads
11) Exocrine glands

Front 667

Fenestrated capillaries are found

Back 667

1) Ciliary body
2) Choriocapillaris
3) Choriod plexus
4) Intestinal villi
5) Stomach
6) Kidney
7) Endocrine glands

Front 668

Bypassing a capillary bed can happen in 2 ways

Back 668

1) contraction of precapillary sphincter
2) AV shunts (thermoregulation)

Front 669

3 portal systems

Back 669

1) hepatic portal vein
2) hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
3) glomerulus-cortical tubule portal system

Front 670

Veins contain approximate what percent of the blood

Back 670

60

Front 671

In veins, most of the wall mass is made up of

Back 671

tunica adventitia

Front 672

These vessels drain the capillary beds, have pericytes, don't run with arterioles, allow WBCs to exit.

Back 672

Postcapillary venules

Front 673

Histamine looses the cell junction in these vessels.

Back 673

Postcapillary venules

Front 674

These vessels run with arterioles

Back 674

muscular venules

Front 675

The right atria produces what hormone?

Back 675

atrial natriuretic peptide (increases sodium and water secretion by the kidneys, inhibits renin release, and decreases blood pressure)

Front 676

Endocardium is composed of what type of epithelium?

Back 676

simple squamous

Front 677

Cardiac skeleton consists of thick bundles of

Back 677

collagen fibers (dense irregular)

Front 678

Insulates electrical activity of atria from ventricles

Back 678

cardiac skeleton

Front 679

Papillary muscles and chordae tendonae attach to which heart valves?

Back 679

Bicuspid (mitral, LT AV) and Tricuspid (RT AV)

Front 680

SA node generates impulses that spread over atria through

Back 680

gap junctions

Front 681

Runs from AV node, split into RT and LT, continues as Perkinje fibers

Back 681

AV bundle of His

Front 682

Large modified cardiac muscle cells, contain large amounts of glycogen, few myofibrils, fast conduction

Back 682

Perkinje fibers

Front 683

How many liters per day drains into lymphatic vessels?

Back 683

3 liters per day

Front 684

Lymphatic vessels that transport lipids absorbed by the small intestine

Back 684

lacteal

Front 685

Tissues that lack lymphatics

Back 685

cartilage, epidermis, cornea, CNS, bone marrow

Front 686

How is lymph pumped?

Back 686

Lymph vessels have 1-way valves
1) Skeletal muscle
2) Respiratory pump

Front 687

Function of lymph node?

Back 687

Filter the lymph

Front 688

Two large lymphatic trunks

Back 688

thoracic and right lymphatic

Front 689

Shape of lymph vessels

Back 689

"angular". Very thin wall, large lumen

Front 690

5 types of cardiac muscle cells

Back 690

1) Atrial muscle cells
2) Ventricular muscle cells
3) Purkinje fibers
4) Pacemaker cells
5) Atrioventricular cells

Front 691

The resting membrane potential in fast response cardiac myocytes is determined by the equlibrium potential of

Back 691

K+ (most permeable ion)

Front 692

Resting membrane potential in fast response cardiac myocytes is (mV)

Back 692

-90mV

Front 693

Slow response cardiac muscle cells have a more depolarized resting membrane potential and therefore there must be...

Back 693

a larger degree of resting permeability to Na+ and/or Ca++

Front 694

7 types of channels involved in cardiac action potential

Back 694

1) Voltage-gated Na channels
2) Voltage-gated Ca channels
3) K+ Inward rectifier
4) K+ Transient outward rectifier
5) K+ Delayed outward rectifier
6) ATP-sensitive K+ channel
7) ACh-activated K+ channel

Front 695

Phase 0 is due to

Back 695

activation of voltage gated Na channels

Front 696

Phase 1 is due to

Back 696

inactivation of Na channels and activation of transient outward K channels

Front 697

Phase 2 is due to

Back 697

activation of L-type (and T-type) Ca++ channels

Front 698

Phase 3 is due to

Back 698

inactivation of L-type Ca channels, activation of *delayed outward rectifying* (also "transient outward rectifying" and "inward rectifying") K+ channels.

Front 699

Once at resting potential, the cell can returns to steady state ([Ca++], [K+], [Na+]) via

Back 699

Na/K ATPase, surface Na/Ca exchanger (main), surface Ca++ ATPase (lesser)

Front 700

Slow depolarization in nodal cells is due to

Back 700

opening of voltage-gated L-type Ca++ channels (which is slow)

Front 701

Fast response cells can be converted to slow response cells by

Back 701

inhibiting Na channels or starting cells at a depolarized potential

Front 702

Full atrial systole take approximately how long?

Back 702

90 ms

Front 703

Natural rhythm of the AV node

Back 703

15-35 beats/min

Front 704

Ventricular systole takes approximately

Back 704

75ms

Front 705

Rapid rise in passive tension of cardiac muscle serves to prevent

Back 705

overfilling of the heart

Front 706

The P-R interval represents

Back 706

atrial contraction

Front 707

The QRS complex represents

Back 707

beginning of ventricle contraction

Front 708

The beginning of the T wave represents

Back 708

ventricular relaxation

Front 709

3 things that cause residual volume to decrease

Back 709

1) increased heart rate
2) decreased peripheral pressure
3) increased contractility

Front 710

Passive ventricular filling phase is ended by

Back 710

atrial contraction

Front 711

True or False. Atrial contraction accounts for very little filling of the ventricle.

Back 711

True

Front 712

Atrial contraction can become important in filling the ventricles during

Back 712

increased heart rate (passive filling time is reduced)

Front 713

Starling's Law

Back 713

CO=SV x HR

Front 714

Important determinant in determining the energy requirement of the heart

Back 714

afterload. Heart does more "pressure work" than kinetic work.

Front 715

2 ways to increase cardiac output

Back 715

1) Increase HR (requires more work = more pressure work/time)
2) Increase SV (requires less work)

Front 716

Most of the blood pressure drop is across the

Back 716

arterioles (70 mmHg down to 35 mmHg)

Front 717

Biggest regulator of blood pressure?

Back 717

Vessel diameter (varias as r^4)

Front 718

Portal circulation

Back 718

blood flows through 2 capillary beds instead of 1

Front 719

3 main types of intrinsic control

Back 719

1) Myogenic - stretch of vessel = stretch of smooth muscle = contraction of SM
2) Metabolic - metabolic end products result in smooth muscle dilation
3) Endothelial - high sheer stress = NO production by endothelium = smooth muscle dilation

Front 720

2 types of extrinsic factors

Back 720

1) hormonal - norepi, renin-angiotensin
2) neural - baroreflex, chemoreceptor reflex

Front 721

1) Blood flow to skin
2) Blood flow to skeletal muscle
3) Blood flow to brain, heart

Back 721

1) extrinsic regulation
2) rest = extrinsic, activity = intrinsic
3) intrinsic

Front 722

Sensory nerve endings in epidermis

Back 722

1) free (nociceptors)
2) Merkel cells

Front 723

Classification of epidermis

Back 723

stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (from ectoderm)

Front 724

epidermis is composed of

Back 724

keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells

Front 725

5 layers of the epidermis

Back 725

1) Stratum basale
2) Stratum spinosum
3) Stratum granulosum
4) Stratum lucidum
5) Stratum corneum

Front 726

Stratum basale has

Back 726

unipot. stem cells, gives rise to keratinocytes. Mitosis only occurs at night. Melanocytes and Merkel cells

Front 727

Stratum spinosum contains

Back 727

2 types of granules (membrane-coating and lamellar bodies) contain glycolipid, prevents water loss/gain.

Front 728

Stratum granulosum contains

Back 728

keratohyalin granules (filaggrun), involucrin. Forms waterproof barrier.

Front 729

Stratum lucidum (not present in thin skin) contains

Back 729

no distinctive cytologic features. Keratinocytes

Front 730

Stratum corneum (dead layer - waterproof layer) contains

Back 730

25-30 layers of flattened, nonnucleated, "keratinized" cells fill with tonofilaments.

Front 731

Melanocytes in epidermis are referred to as

Back 731

clear cells

Front 732

Melanocytes in epidermis transfer melanin to

Back 732

keratinocytes

Front 733

Melanin pigment is degraded by

Back 733

lysosomes of keratinocyte

Front 734

Langerhans cells look like

Back 734

melanocytes

Front 735

Langerhans cells are located

Back 735

in the stratum spinosum

Front 736

Langerhans cells are referred to as

Back 736

clear cells

Front 737

Clear cells can refer to

Back 737

Langerhans cells (in stratum spinosum) or melanocytes (in stratum basale)

Front 738

tennis racked-shaped granules are

Back 738

Birbeck granules (in Langerhans cells)

Front 739

Langerhans cell function

Back 739

antigen presenting cell. Express both MHC-I and MHC-II

Front 740

Present in small numbers in the stratum basale, pale cytoplasm with dense-core granules (glutamate), receive afferent nerve terminals, contact Merkel disc, mechanoreceptors. Most numerous in the fingertips

Back 740

Merkel cells

Front 741

Thick skin is characterized by

Back 741

prominent stratum corneum and distinct stratum lucidum. More sweat glands than thin, but lack hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and arrector pili muscles.

Front 742

Thin skin is characterized by

Back 742

less prominent stratum corneum, lack stratum lucidum, contains hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.

Front 743

Mesodermal origin, dense irregular collagenous, type I collagen, reticular fibers, dermatan sulfate, forms dermal papillae and rete ridges.

Back 743

dermis

Front 744

Meissner corpuscles are found in

Back 744

dermis

Front 745

Reticular layer of dermis is composed of

Back 745

dense bundles of type I collagen fibers and thick elastic fibers.

Front 746

Langer's lines represent

Back 746

varying directions are referred to as the cleavage lines of Langer

Front 747

= sudoriferous glands, simple coiled tubular glands. Dark cells secrete mucus-rich material by exocytosis. Clear cells secrete watery, electrolyte-rich material into the canaliculi. Myoepithelial cells contract to expell contents.

Back 747

Eccrine sweat glands

Front 748

Aldosterone affects

Back 748

eccrine sweat glands

Front 749

Odoriferous glands, located in axilla, areola of nipple, perianal region, eyelids and external auditory canal. Empty into hair follicles. React to emotion and sensory, but not heat.

Back 749

Apocrine Sweat Glands

Front 750

Holocrine glands, stimulated by androgens, controlled only by hormones

Back 750

Sebaceous glands

Front 751

Hair growth is

Back 751

cyclic

Front 752

Autonomic receptor activated by low concentrations of epinephrine release from the adrenal medulla and causes vasodilation?

Back 752

Adrenergic beta 2

Front 753

autonomic receptor mediates secretion of epinephrine by the adrenal medulla

Back 753

Cholinergic nicotinic receptors

Front 754

autonomic receptor mediates an increase in heart rate

Back 754

adrenergic beta 1 receptors

Front 755

adrenergic receptor which produces its stimulatory effects by formation if IP3 and increase in intracellular Ca++?

Back 755

alpha 1 receptors

Front 756

autonomic receptor blocked by hexamethonium at the ganglia, but not at the neuromuscular junction?

Back 756

nicotinic receptors

Front 757

Cardiac:
1) Fast response action potentials happen in the ...
2) Slow response action potentials happen in the ...

Back 757

1) atrial and ventricular muscle cells
2) SA and AV nodes

Front 758

Cardiac: Norepinephrine speed depolarization at the SA and AV nodes by

Back 758

activating Na+ and Ca++ channels and inhibiting K+ channels

Front 759

Cardiac: Acetylcholine slows depolarization at the SA and AV nodes by

Back 759

opening K+ channels and closing Ca++ channels.