Campbell Biology 5

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Alpha helix

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A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure.

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amino acid

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An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins.

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beta pleated sheet

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One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth, or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds.

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carbohydrate

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carbohydrate A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).

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cellulose

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cellulose A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages.

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chaperonin

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Protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

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chitin

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chitin A structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

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cholesterol

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cholesterol A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.

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condensation reaction

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condensation reaction A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water; also called dehydration reaction.

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dehydration reaction

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dehydration reaction A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.

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denaturation

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For proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. For DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature.

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deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.

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deoxyribose

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deoxyribose The sugar component of DNA, having one less hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA.

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disaccharide

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A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

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disulfide bridge

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Strong covalent bonds formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.

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double helix

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double helix The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.

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fat

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A biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.

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fatty acid

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fatty acid A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.

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gene

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A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

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glycogen

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An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

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glycosidic linkage

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A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

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hydrolysis

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hydrolysis A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water; an essential process in digestion.

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hydrophobic interactions

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hydrophobic interaction A type of weak chemical bond formed when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude the water.

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lipid

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lipid One of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water.

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macromolecule

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A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.

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monomer

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The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.

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monosaccharide

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monosaccharide The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of monosaccharides are generally some multiple of CH2O.

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nucleic acid

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A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.

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nucleotide

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The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.

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peptide bond

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The covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction.

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phopholipids

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A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

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polymer

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A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.

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polynucleotide

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A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.

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polypeptide

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A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

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polysaccharide

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A polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.

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primary structure

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The level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids

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proteins

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protein A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.

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purine

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purine One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.

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pyrimidine

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One of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are pyrimidines.

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quaternary structure

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The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.

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ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.

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ribose

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The sugar component of RNA.

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saturated fatty acid

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A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.

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secondary structure

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The localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages.

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starch

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A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

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steroids

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A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.

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tertiary structure

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Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.

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triacyglycerol

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Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.

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unsaturated fatty acid

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A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

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x-ray crystallography

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x-ray crystallography A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of a molecule.

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oxygen accumulate in atmosphere

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2.7 billion years ago

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eukaryotes

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2.1 billion years ago

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multicellular eukaryotes

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1.2 billion years ago

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plants,fungi,animals

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500 million

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life begins

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non living materials became organized into molecular aggregates that eventually could reproduce and metabolize molecules

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spontaneous generation

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old theory that life arose from non-living matter

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biogenesis

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theory that life can arise only from the reproduction of preexisting life

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4 parts of current theories

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1. small organic molecules were synthesized 2. these molecules joined into polymers 3. self replicating molecules emerges 4. all these molecules were packaged into membrane containing droplets whose internal chemistry differed from external environment simulation of early conditions on earth have produced organic polymers

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first genetic material

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is RNA and DNA (hypothesized)

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protobionts

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aggregates of molecules that were produced abioticly (hypothetical) have a consistent and internal environment have some other properties assosciated with life

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5-kingdom system

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early 70s, monera, protista, plantae, fungi, animalia

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3 domain system

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Eubacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya makes kindom of monera absolete

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taxonomy

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work in progress, protista now being studied more to

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3 most common shaped of prokaryotes

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sphere, rods, helixs

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peptidoglycans

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most proks have a cell wall that contains peptidoglycans

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gram-positive

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bacteria have simpler wall that contains more peptidoglycans

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gram-negative

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cells have walls that are structurally more complex

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pili

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proks use these appendages to adhere to each other or to surrounding surfaces

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motile

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over half of proks are motile because they possess whip-like flagella

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plasmids

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in addition to their one major chromosome, proks have smaller independent pieces

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binary fission

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proks method of reproduction

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three mechanisms in which proks can transfer genetic material

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1. transformation - prok takes up genes from its environment 2. conjugation - genes are directly transferred from one prok to another 3. transduction - viruses transfer genes between proks

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major source of genetic variation

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mutation

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4 groups of prokaryotes

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1. photoautotrophs photosynthetic and use the power of sun light turn CO2 into organic cmps 2. chemoautotrophs also use carbon dioxide as source of carbon but get energy from oxidizing inorganic substances 3. photoheterotrophs use light to make atp but must obtain their carbon from an outside source already fixed in organic cmps 4. chemoheterotrophs get both carbon and energy from organic compounds, includes most proks

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two types of chemoheterotrophs

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saprobes - decomposers parasites

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nitrogen fixation

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process some proks use atmospheric nitrogen as a direct source of nitrogen, convert N2 to NH4+

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obligate aerobes

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cannot grow without oxygen for cell respiration

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obligate anaerobes

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use fermentation and are poisoned by oxygen

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facultative anaerobes

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use oxygen if available or undergo fermentation if not

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extremophiles

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live in extreme environments such as geysers

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3 types of extremophiles

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methanogens use carbon dioxide to oxidize H2 and to produce methane as biproduct 2. extreme halophiles- live in salene environments 3. extreme thermophiles live in hot environments

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symbiotic

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form relationships with other species, one organism is significantly larger and is called host

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3 types of symbiosis

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mutualism- both benefit commensalism - one benefits, the other is neither helped nor harmed parasitism - one benefits one does not

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protists

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simplest but most diverse of all euks, vary in structure and function more than any other group of euks, most are unicellular and use aerobic metabolism + have mitochondria

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protozoa

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animal like protists

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algae

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plant like protists

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most protists

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have cilia + flagella, mitosis, aquatic environments

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diplomonadida-parabasala

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secondary loss of mitochondria diplomonadida - two separate nuclei - giardia parabasala - undulating membrane

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euglenozoa

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photosynthetic, heterotrophic, and mixotrophic flagellates Euglenophyta paramlylon as storage polysacharide \ kinetoplatida kinetoplast, unique organel

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alveolata

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subsurface alveoli-membrane bound cavities 1 dinoflaggelata A unicellular photosynthetic alga with two flagella situated in perpendicular grooves in cellulose plates covering the cell. 2. apicomplexa - apical complex functioning in penetration of hosts cells - plasmodium 3. ciliophora - cilia functioning in movement and feeding - paramecium

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stramenopila

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clade of hairy flagella oomycota- hyphae which absorb nutrients, water molds, rusts, downy mildews 2. bacillariophyta - diatoms - glassy two part walls 3. chrysophyta (golden algae) biflagellate cells, xanophyll pigments 4. phaeophyta (brown algae) brown color from accessory pigments

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rhodophyta (red algae)

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no flagellated stages,

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viridiplantae (includes green algae group, chlorophyta)

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plant-type chloroplasts

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mycetozoa

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decomposers having complex life cycles with amoeboid stages 1. mixogastridia (plasmodial slimemolds) - net like plasmodium as feeding stage 2. dicteostalida (cellular slime molds) amoeboid feeding cells that aggregate to form reproductive colonies

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pseudopod equiped protists of uncertain phylogeny

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1. rhizopoda - lobe-like pseudopodia - amoeba 2. Actiniopada - ray-like pseudopodia 3. foraminifera - porous cells

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four main groups of land plants

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bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms

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bryophytes

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several adaptations for land living, lack vascular tissues

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pteridophytes

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lack seeds

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seeds

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plant embryos packaged with food supply and protective coat

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gymnosperms

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seeds that are not enclosed in protective coating

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angiosperms

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flowering plants

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alternation of generations

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all land plants- have life cycle consisting of two stages, the gametophyte (haploid) and sporophyte (diploid) stage

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spore

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a cell produced by plants - can develop into new plants without fusing with another cell

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3 adaptations enabling plants to live on land

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1.vconservation of water, cuticle is a waxy layer made up of polymers that seals water into cell, stomata openings on the undersurface of leaf that open and close to allow evaporition of water and CO2 2. transport of water through body of plant, xylem +phloem 3. adaptation of transport of photosynthesized food, glucose, phloem tubules

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three phyla in bryophyta

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mosses, liverworts, hornwarts dominant generation is gametophyte

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pteridphytes

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seedless vascular plant life is dominated by sporophyte stage ferns and horsetails are prominant examples

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seed plants

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vascular plants that produce seeds

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three most crucial adaptation of plants that lead to evolution of seed plants

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1. reduction of gametophyte stage 2. evolution of seed 3. evolution of pollen

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pollination

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microspores of seed plants develop into pollen grains, which are dispersed by the wind or animals, so that this process can take place

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gymosperms

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prominant gymnospers are conifers (cone bearing plants)

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two types of cones of pine trees

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pollen cones and ovulate cones

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anigisperms

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phyla anthophyta, 1. monocots have veins that run parallel 2. dicots have net like vein patterns -flower is major reproductive adaptation of angiosperms

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fruits

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mature ovaries of the plants

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8 steps in angiosperm life cycle

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1. anthers produce microspores 2. micropores-also known as pollen, form male gametophyte 3.meanwhile ovules form megaspores that form female gametophytes (embryo sacs) 4. pollination brings gametophytes together in ovary 5. double fertilization takes place 6. zygotes develop into sporophyte embryos packaged into along with food into seeds

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coevolved

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mutual evolutionary influence btwn plants and animals

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4 ways fungi differ from other euks

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1. nutrition, structure, growth, reproduction

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nutrition

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fungi are heterotrophs and obtain nutrients by absorption in which they secret hydrolytic enzymes and digest food outside their bodies

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hyphae

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bodies of fungi composed of filaments, entwined together to form mycelium

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septa

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walls between hyphae cells made of chitin

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four phyla of fungi

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1. chytridiomycota - aquatic sapropes or parasites, most primitive 2. zygomycota - terrestrial, some form mycorrizae, mutual association with roots, bread mold

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ascomycota

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sac fungi, live in a variety of habitats

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basidomycota

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club fungus, include muchroms and are important decomposers of plant materials

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3 important fungi

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1. molds - rapidly growing fungi that produce asexually 2. yeasts - unicellular fungi that live in moist habitats, produce asexually by budding 3. lichens - symbiotic associations of photosynthetic microrganisms (algae) embedded in a network of fungal hyphae, hardy, pioneers on rock and soil surfaces

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animals

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multicellular eukaryotes that must ingest preformed organic molecules into their bodies (heterotrophs)

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how many animal phyla

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about 35

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radial symetry

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any cut through central axis of the organism produce miror images

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bilateral symetry

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single cut devides into two

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cephalization

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concentration of sensory equipment at one end of the organism

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acoelomates

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flatworms, have no cavities between their digestive tracks and outer wall of body

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coelomates

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possess fluid filled body cavity that separates an animals digestive track from outer body wall

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during cambrian explosion, first animals possessed hard, minerlized skeletons

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ddd

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invertebrates

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backbones

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1. subkingdom parazoa phylum porifera

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ddd

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parazoa

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sponges are the oldest animals. they are sessile but very sedate have no nerves or muscles

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spongeocoel

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pores in sponges through which water is drawn

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osculum

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pores in sponges through which water flow out

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filter-feeders

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collect particles from waters that pass through them

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hermaphrodites

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function in both male and female in reproduction

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regeneration

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capable of regrowing lost parts

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2. Subkingdom eumetozoa

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ddd

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radially symetrical animals

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animals with true tissues, which sponges lack, two phyla of radiata are, cnidarians and ctenophora

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cnidaria

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exist in polyp and medusa form, have radial symetry, central digestive compartment known as gastrovascular cavity, cnidocytes 9cells that function in defense and the capture of prey), hydras, jellies, and sea anemonies

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ctenophora

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come jellies, look like medusal cnidarians, most are spherical, possess row of plates formed from fused cilia, used for locamotion

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bilaterally symmetrical animals

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see below

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1. Acoelomates

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animals without body cavity see below

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phylum platyhelminthes

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flat worms, live in water or damp - exist in parasitic and free living form; are flat with dorsal and ventral surfaces; lack organs that specialize for circulation; reproduce asexually;ex. flukes and tapeworms

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phylum nemertea

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ribbon worms or probiscus worms, have excretory sensory and nervous systum similar to flat worms, complete digestive tract with a closed circulatory system with no heart

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2. pseudocoelomates

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ddd

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phylum nematoda

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roundworms, found in most aquatic habitats, bodies not segmented, are cylindrical, have exoskeleton called a cutivle, complete digestive tract but no circulatory system, pseudocoelum, reproduce sexualy, sexes are separate in most species

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phylum rotifera

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inhabit fresh water, specialized organ systems including complete digestive tract, jaws that grind food, and cilia that draw water into mouth, some practise parthenogenesis

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3. coelomates

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ddd

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phylum lophophorata

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contain a lophophore - a circular fold of the body wall, with ciliated tentacles surrounding the mouth

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phylum muluska

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soft bodied animals protected with a hard shell, slugs, squids, octopi, possess a muscular foot for movement, visceral mass made of organs and a mantle secretes a shell, most have separate sexes

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phylum annelida

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worms, segmented internally and externally, live in damp or sea habitats, have a coelum, closed disestive system, brain like central giglia, and a hydrostatic skeleton

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phylum arthropoda

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segmented animals with hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages, well developed sensory organs, open circulatory system, organs specialize gas exchange, includes crustacea, chelicerates(spiders,

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4. deuterostomia

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radial cleavage, share common developmental processes

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phylum echinodermata

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slow moving, radiate from center. Thin skin covering an exoskeleton, a water cascular system, reproduce sexually and can be divided into six classes, sea stars, urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers

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phylum chordata

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includes two sub phylum composed of invertebrates as well as all vertebrates

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vertebrates

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have a backbone

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vertebrates four anatomical features

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many occur only in embryonic development 1. a notochord - long flexible rod, appears during embryonic development between digestive tube and dorsal nurve chord 2. Dorsol hollow nerve chord formed from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into hollow tube 3. pharyngeal slits - allow water to enter and exit mouth without going through digestive tract 4. a muscular tail posterior to the anus

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two subphyla of invertebrate chordates

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urochordata (tunicates) and cephalochordata (lancelates) simpler versions of vertebrates

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four things that differentiate vertebrates

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neural crest, significant cephalization, a vertebral column, and a closed circulatory system

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two extant classes of jawless vertebrates

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class myxini (hagfishes) - marine bottom dwelling scavengers, possess no vertebrae and have a skeleton made of cartilage class cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys) marine and fresh water, cartilagenous pipe surounds notochord, lack skeleton supported jaws

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jawed important classes of fishes and amphibs

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class chondrichthyes - flexible endoskeletons composed of cartilage, streamline bodies, denser than water, sink if stop swimming, example - sharks and rays

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class osteichthyes

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bony fishes, most numerous of all vertebrate groups, ossified means boned endoskeleton, covered in scales, and possess a swim bladder.

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three main classes of bony fish

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ray-finned fish, lobe finned fish, lung-fishes

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class amphibia

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maintain close ties with water, rely on skin for gas exchange, some have larval stage with a dual aquatic and terestrial life, eggs lack a shell, fertilization is external, can exhibit complex social behavior

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clade amniotes

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mammals, birds, and, reptiles

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amniotic egg

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have a shell that retains water and thus can be laid in dry environment

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extraembryonic membranes

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in amniotic eggs, function in gas exchange, waste storage, and transport of nutrients to embryo

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Reptiles

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have scales, obtain oxygen through lungs, not skin. lay eggs on land; undergo internal fertilization

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ancient reptiles

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dinosaurs, pterosaurs

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modern reptiles

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testudine (turtles) sphenodontia (tuataras) squamata (lizards, snakes) crocodilia (crocs and gaters)

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birds

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lay amniotic eggs and have scales on their legs, both are vaguely reptilian

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how are bird's bodies constructed for flight

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light, hollow bones relatively few organs wings, feathers

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ratites

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flightless bird

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carinates

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birds that fly

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endotherms

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(birds) maintain a warm, consistent body temp. feathers in some cases layer of fat insulate birds and help maintain internal temp.

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differences btwn birds and reps

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four chambered heart high rate of metabolism larger brains

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mammals shared characteristics

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all possess mammary glands possess hair are endothermic active metabolism born rather than hatched all use internal fertilization proportionally larger brains teeth of differentiating size

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3 groups

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monotremes - egg laying mammals ex. are platypus and spiny anteater marsupials - pouch where embryo develops placental mammals - long period of pregnacy and complete development in uterus

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characteristics of all primates

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grasping hands and feet large brains short jaws forward-looking eyes flat nails well developed parental care complex social behavior

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two subgroups of primates

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1. prosimii - lemurs, 2. Anthropoidea - monkeys, apes, and humans

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human evolution

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increased brain volume shortening of the jaw bipedal posture reduced size difference btwn sexes and important changes in family structure