Ca 260 Terms

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Communication

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• Communication is a systemic process in which individuals interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meaning

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systemic

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lots of different factors interacting and making up the whole that is communication

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process

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communication consists of a systemic series of events

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symbols

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arbitrary representations of things

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meaning

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what is intended to be, or actually is, expressed or indicated

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intentionality

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defining communication based on whether or not the communicator meant for the message to be received

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level of observation / abstractness

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how broad or specific is the definition of communication in question (inclusiveness or narrowness of the definition)

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reception

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does the definition depend on whether the transmission is successfully received?

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3 perspectives of what should be considered communication

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intentional and received, just has to be intentional, just has to be received

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History: antiquity

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communications (rhetoric) has been studied since antiquity (the time of aristotle, the sophists, plato, cicero)

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History: World War I

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Academic interest in communication became an especially popular subject following World War I because of Technological Advances
Intellectual Shifts
Concerns with Propaganda & Public Opinion
Influence of Psychology & Sociology

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History: Europe vs. USA

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USA: Social Scientific Studies and Rhetorical Studies

Europe: Critical Theory and Media Studies

USA more about speeches and rhetoric, whereas Europe is more about mass media

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History: Non-western approaches: Afrocentrism

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promoting emphasis on African culture and the contributions of Africans to the development of Western civilization

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History: Non-western approaches: Asiacentric theory

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- Everyone and everything are interrelated across space and time.
- Everyone and everything become meaningful in relation to others
- Harmony is vital to the survival of everyone and everything

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Communication theory

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Communication Theory: An attempt to describe or explain the communication process.

- Can refer to a single theory or a set of theories/concepts.

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Theory (ch. 2)

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An attempt to describe or explain a
phenomenon.
- Theory refers to an organized set of concepts,
explanations, and principles of some aspect of human
experience.
- Theory is both used in doing research and it is the end
result of the research process.

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The process of inquiry

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A systematic study of some communicative phenomenon that leads to understanding.
1.Ask questions
2.Observation guided by particular methods
3.Develop answers to those questions (theory generation)

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Methods of inquiry: social science

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(Communication Science)—Emphasize objectivity, standardization & replication

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Process of inquiry: Humanities

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(Rhetorical Approaches)—Emphasize interpretation & subjectivity

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Branches of Comm Studies: Interpersonal Communication

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Communication between people

Key Topics: Relational communication, conflict, effects of gender, race, class and sexual orientation in friendships, relationships, etc.

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Branches of Comm Studies: Group and Team Communication

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looks at the communicative dynamics in small groups (more than 3 less than 20).

Key Topics: leadership, group think, fantasy themes, roles, agenda setting.

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Branches of Comm Studies: Public Communication

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looks at the dynamics of communicating publicly or with larger groups in speech and discussion settings .

Key Topics: public address, audience perception, style, use of metaphor and narrative.

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Branches of Comm Studies: Organizational Communication

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focuses on dynamics of communication in organizations as well as the ways we organize through communication.

Key Topics: networks, organizational culture, emotional labor, gender in organization, bullying, work-life policies, language use in organizations.

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Branches of Comm Studies: Mass Communication

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Looks at communication across broad publics like the media.

Key Topics: Representation of particular groups, media effects, identity, circulation.

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Philosophical assumptions: Ontology

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assumptions about ontology = questions of existence

glossary: deals with the nature of being, or more practically, the nature of the phenomena we seek to know.

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Philosophical assumptions: Epistemology

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assumptions about epistemology = questions of knowledge

glossary: branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.

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Philosophical assumptions: Axiology

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assumptions about axiology = questions of value

glossary: branch of philosophy that studies values

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Goals of theory: Description

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the process of using symbols to represent a phenomenon

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Goals of theory: Explanation

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an effort to clarify how and why something
works

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Goals of theory: Prediction / Control

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Prediction: projecting what will
happen to a phenomenon in certain
circumstances.

- Control: the use of explanations and predictions to govern what a phenomenon actually does

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Goals of theory: Understanding

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providing insight into what something
means in a given context or for a particular group of
people.

-A primary goal of the humanist or interpretive approach

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Goals of theory: Reform

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the active pursuit of positive social change.

- A primary goal of critical research

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Methodology

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perspective on which methods will help you get the best answers to your research questions

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method

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means by which one gets to an answer

examples: Survey design, experiments, focus groups,
ethnography, content analysis, conversational
analysis, participant observation, interviews

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tools

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the specific instruments you will use in conducting research

examples: Interview guides, questionnaires, experiments

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Semiotic tradition

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signs and symbols

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Phenomenological tradition

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personal experience

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Cybernetic tradition

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systems

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Rhetoric: vernacular definitions

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empty words without substance, Associated with public communication that privileges style over substance
Words over Language

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Rhetoric: academic definitions: using symbols

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Using symbols to convey meaning
Humans as the creators of rhetoric
Symbols as the medium for rhetoric

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Rhetoric: informative discourse

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using words to give knowledge to others

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Rhetoric: persuasive discourse

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using words to convince others of something

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rhetoric as method

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Rhetoric is more method than subject
It is concerned with those questions that people dispute (the contingent)
justice and injustice
The desirable and undesirable
Praise, blame, honor and dishonor
A method that deals in probabilities
A method that helps us deal with the uncertain, undecidableand unsolvable
It provides a means to analyze symbolic art & artifacts (Foss)
How and why something works
To understand and make sense of our symbolic lives (Foss)

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functions of rhetorical criticism

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To adjust ideas to people and people to ideas
To apply reason to the imagination
To clarify and promote understanding
To examine the “fictions that we live by and under”
Ideologies, narratives, myths,
Inventio: The discovery of ideas
To Educate
Analyze, create, listen, & evaluate informative and persuasive discourse
To help us communicate and use symbols more effectively.

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process of rhetorical criticism

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- We begin with a particular rhetorical artifact that seems to use symbols in an interesting way.
- Rhetorical critics examine what the artifact teaches us about the nature of rhetoric.
- Rhetorical critics generate theory & these theories help us to improve how we communicate

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traits theories

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Traittheories look at the distinguishing qualities or characteristics of individuals.
Traits predict behavior in certain situations.

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conversational narcissism

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erber observed that the social support system in America is relatively weak, and this leads people to compete mightily for attention. In social situations, they tend to steer the conversation away from others and toward themselves.

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argumentativeness

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the tendency to engage in conversations about controversial topics, to support your own point of view, and to refute opposing beliefs

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social and communication anxiety

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includes communication apprehension (enduring tendency to doubt yourself in terms of communicating), social avoidance, social anxiety, interaction anxiety, and shyness

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attribution theory

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deals with the ways people infer motivations for the behavior of self and others

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fundamental attribution error

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the tendency to attribute the cause of events to personal qualities. it is a feeling that people are responsible for what happens to them.

if thing happens to other person, it's their fault. if it happens to us, we blame things out of our control

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symbolic interactionism

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As people interact over time with each other they come to share meanings for words and actions.

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mind

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the ability to use symbols that have common social meaning

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self

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the ability to reflect on ourselves from the perspective of others

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Looking-glass self

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the idea that we learn to see ourselves mirrored in others’ eyes.

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role taking

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the process of internalizing others’ perspectives and viewing experience from their perspectives.

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role taking: particularized others

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individuals who are significant to us who become a part of our ME side

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role taking: generalized others

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the viewpoints of social groups in our lives that are a part of our ME side

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standpoint theory

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The basic idea of standpoint theory is that the social groups we belong to shape what we know and how we communicate.
Standpoint theory posits that culture is not experienced uniformly by all its members.

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constitutive rhetoric

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A function, theory, and type of rhetorical discourse
that focuses on attempts to construct an audience at
the same time as persuading it.
 The activity and art of “constituting character,
community, and culture in language”
 Creates an image of the audience for the
audience’s sake
 Constitutive rhetoric: “shapes the identity of its addrees”
 It awakens an audience

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importance of constitutive rhetoric

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- Helps make political community
 Facilitates action
 Facilitates judgment

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Constitutive Rhetoric as Genre/Type

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Characteristics of the genre of constitutive rhetoric
 Presumes and assets a fundamental collective identity
for its audience
 Offers a narrative that demonstrates that identity
 Issues a call to action that affirms that identity
 This genre of discourse warrants action in the name
of that common identity and the principles for which
it stands.

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Functions of Constitutive Rhetoric

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Generally, uses rhetoric (language, symbols) to help
form collectivities
 To help found a nation, organization, or group
 To give rise to and maintain social movements
 To form and strengthen political campaigns

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Constitutive Rhetoric as theory

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Focus: role of rhetoric in producing identity and
character of audience.
 Major assumptions
 Identity is not a given, it is rhetorically produced
 Rhetoric creates political subjects

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Constitutive Rhetoric as method

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Critic usually focuses on texts where constituting function is
likely to occur
 Constitutions, proclamations, declarations, manifestos, social
movements, war
 Paradox of address – audiences are addressed as if their
identity existed prior to being constituted by rhetoric.
 Subject position – a place from which the audience is called
upon to judge and act.
 Seek markers of constructing audience identity
 Narratives
 Naming of self
 Value and attitude appeals