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156 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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abandon
The old export procurement plan was abandoned in 1988. |
сдавать, оставлять, уходить, покидать
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accomplish, accomplishment
The main accomplishments of this phase have been the remaking of the institutional setup to make it compatible with a market economy . |
выполнять, достигать, завершать
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according, accordance
According to the induced-innovation hypothesis, in most of China, with abundant (обильный) labor and relatively scarce land, we expect to see technology that is land saving—or land augmenting (расширяют)—and labor using, as in the Japanese case. |
согласие, соответствие, согласованность
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account for
Of all industry in unoccupied China, state-run firms accounted for 70% of the capital and 32% of the labor. |
1) давать отчет; объяснять 2) нести ответственность 3) отчитываться 4) принимать во внимание 6) являться причиной
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accuracy, accurate, inaccuracy
Statistical accuracy is a problem in transitional economies because the magnitude of change is so large. The problem is that they are based on shoddy calculations of the rural consumer price index, which can be shown to be inaccurate. |
точный,верный, аккуратный, точность
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achieve, achievement
China, like Japan, followed a process of technical advance in agriculture in which the fundamental achievement was the improvement in yields (урожай) per unit of land. |
достигать, выполнять, достижение
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adapt
Agricultural production, arguably, is distinctive precisely because of the way it must always be adapted to concrete conditions. |
Приспосабливать, применять
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add, additional
Thus, manufacturing value-added accounted for 35% of China’s GDP in 2004. In that sense, globalization and international trade create additional opportunities for specialization . |
добавочный, дополнительный
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adjust, adjustment
As expected, this adjustment lowers the measured return to education. |
регулирование; согласование; уточнение,
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adopt, adoption
A program was adopted to make nine years of education compulsory, and to eliminate illiteracy among young people. |
принимать, усваивать,
принятие; утверждение |
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affect
The decline in protected monopoly profits inevitably affected every aspect of industrial finance. |
оказывать воздействие, влияние;
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afflict
problems afflicted the hasty (стремительн) privatization programs in Russia and Eastern Europe. |
(afflict with) причинять боль, страдания,
поражать, заражать |
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alarm, alarming
Foreign-exchange reserves, small to begin with, melted away at alarming speed. |
волновать,
волнующий, тревожный |
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allocate
government debt was allocated to different organizations—including banks—by government command rather than by market means. |
назначать; распределять
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allow
In agriculture, increased commercialization allowed intensification to continue without a technological revolution. |
позволять
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anticipate
However, the actual outcome of this complex period was far different from what anyone anticipated. |
ожидать, предвидеть; предчувствовать, предвкушать,
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apply, application
The innovations of the green revolution could not be applied to the wheat region . |
обращаться с просьбой
применять |
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approach
the growth rate of the economy as a whole approaches 10% |
подход
приближаться, граничить |
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assess, assessment
Current Chinese levels of inequality are near the middle of the range of developing economies, if assessed in light of China’s size and geographical diversity. The backward-looking assessments will not be very good guides to the future. |
оценивать, определять
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assume, assumption
Lenovo Computer is another example: it is not a manufacturing powerhouse moving up with the IBM brand, as many have assumed. Estimates based on conservative assumptions about indoor air pollution suggest that it causes 111,000 premature (преждевр) deaths a year. |
допускать, предполагать
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average
Moreover, it appears that living standards in China were stable until the early 1800s—there is no evidence of large increases or decreases—and close to average world living standards. |
нормальный, обыкновенный, обычный, средний
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GDP
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gross domestic product
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avoid
It would be possible to avoid 178,000 premature deaths each year if China met its own class II air pollution standards |
избегать
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blueprint
The Russian machinery advanced industrial technology, and blueprints and technical specifications were generally provided as well |
(детальный) план, программа, проект; образец,
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boost
In the early years of reform, the urban–rural gap shrank (уменьшать), as the success of rural reforms sharply boosted the farmers’ income. |
поддержка; рекламирование,
помогать, поддерживать; |
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capacity
This system gave the Chinese government the fiscal (денежн) capacity to mobilize resources for Big Push industrialization . |
вместимость, способность (что-л. делать)
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cautious
Thus, even though change came fast in rural areas, reformers were extremely cautious in introducing labor markets in the cities. |
осторожный, осмотрительный; предусмотрительный
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coincide
Again, broad economic forces coincided to produce a significant impact on rural poverty. |
происходить в то же самое время, совпадать
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commitment
Chinese leaders strengthened their commitment to building a “new kind” of cooperative rural health care system |
приверженность, взгляды, поручение, передача
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commodity
This topic will also serve as a bridge between the discussion of the institutional features shaping Chinese trade and the geographic and commodity composition of China’s trade. |
предмет потребления,
товар, продукт для продажи |
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common
China’s economic development has followed a process that shares many common features of structural change with other developing countries. |
общий
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compare, comparison, comparative
The discussion of structural change is broadened to take a comparative perspective on growth, labor, and the changing distribution of GDP |
сравнение, сравнительный
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compatible with
The main accomplishments of this phase have been the remaking of the institutional setup to make it compatible with a market economy |
совместимый, сочетаемый
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compete, competition, competitive.
Current policies lock in the growth of an increasingly competitive and open economy. China's competitive behaviors had been nourished (подпитыв-сь) by the traditional economy. |
соперничающий, конкурентный, конкурентоспособный
конкурировать |
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compulsory
program was adopted to make nine years of education compulsory, and to eliminate illiteracy among young people |
обязательный
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consequence
The administrative barriers dividing urban and rural areas have economic origins and economic consequences |
(по)следствие, результат, вывод
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consider, consideration
In the urban areas, the work units themselves received government investment, and urban workers were considered to be the vanguard (лидер, головной отряд) of socialism |
обсуждение; рассмотрение
рассматривать |
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contradictory
An economic census (перепись) conducted at the end of 2004 turned up contradictory indicators. |
противоречащий; несовместимый;
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contribute, contribution
However, some farm machinery, such as the small electric pumps discussed earlier, made crucial contributions to the modern input (затраты на произв-во) package |
вклад
вносить вклад, обогатить ценным достижением, содействовать |
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cover
A perfectly hard budget constraint (давление) exists when a company has to cover all of its expenditures in a given period from its own income |
покрывать
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decide, decision, decisive
But in the long run, managers, who had superior local, insider’s knowledge of the enterprise’s circumstances, could be expected to have decisive advantages in the negotiation process. |
решающий, имеющий решающее значение
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decline, to decline
The share of illiteracy declined rapidly. The share of workforce in industry declines |
наклонять, склонять, клонить,
уменьшаться, идти на убыль; спадать |
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demand, to demand
The increase in manufacturing sophistication (сложность, соответствие совр треб-ям) has increased the demands on design and other capacities(кач-во). |
требовать, потребовать
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determine
Today these barriers have lost some of their earlier importance, but they still remain fundamental in understanding the functioning of the Chinese economy, as well as in determining the different life outcomes of Chinese households. |
определять, устанавливать, решать
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develop, development
Chinese policy-makers started supporting the “Coastal Development Strategy.” |
развивать, совершенствовать, укреплять
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dismantle
Economic reforms began a process of dismantling, or at least lowering, barriers between the urban and rural economies |
разрушать, сносить, разоружать, раздевать, демонтировать
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distinctive
However, the distinctive characteristics of foreign investment in China thus far may not be a good guide to the future. |
дифференциальный, отличительный, характерный
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distort, distortion
This necessity produces a further distortion of the market’s ability to value companies accurately. |
искажать; искривлять; деформировать
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distribute, distribution
Economists often use the Gini coefficient as a summary measure of income distribution. |
распределять, раздавать, рассредоточивать
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divide, division
Possession of an urban hukou still marks a fundamental divide in Chinese society. |
деление, разделение, распределение
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domestic
a fairly large domestic fertilizer (оплодотв-ль, опылитель,удобрение) industry was gradually built up. |
домашний, бытовой, внутренний, домоседливый, любящий семейную жизнь
domestics ; товары отечественного производства |
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earn
Revenues earned from rural enterprises were regularly channeled by community governments to public works and aid-to-agriculture projects |
заработать, заслуживать
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eliminate
Tax reform at the end of 1994 finally eliminated profit sharing and the practice of profit contracting, |
устранять, исключать, ликвидировать
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emerge, emerging
This newly emerging sector of Chinese industry—medium-size, predominantly private, but with hybrid ownership patterns—has emerged as a highly dynamic and rapidly growing sector |
появляться; выходить, выясняться
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emphasize, emphasis
The chapter concludes by emphasizing China’s gains from trade |
ридавать особое значение; подчёркивать, акцентировать
выразительность, силa |
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enable
In that view, the sudden acceleration of growth indicates that some new set of conditions was in place that enabled a “takeoff” to occur |
давать возможность, право, делать возможным, уполномачивать
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encourage
It also requires competitive bidding, encourages firms to be sold through regional property-rights exchanges |
ободрять; поощрять, поддерживать
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environment
Rural Chinese, who never enjoyed real economic or health security while tied to their home villages, have now been thrown into even more precarious (ненадежный) economic environments as they migrate in search of opportunity |
окружающая обстановка
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equip, equipment
Nevertheless, the government spent a lot for technology embodied in plants and equipment. |
снаряжать, оборудовать
давать (необходимые знания, образование) |
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erode, erosion
If world market forces had been allowed to affect domestic prices, they would have gradually eroded the socialist price system |
a) разрушать б) ослаблять, постепенно уменьшать, портить
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estimate, estimation
from an estimated 72 million in 1400, at the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), population grew to around 381 million in 1820. |
оценивать, производить оценку, полагать
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evaluate, evaluation
With the previous discussion, we are now in a better position to evaluate the comparative development of China’s stock markets. |
оценивать; устанавливать стоимость; определять количество, вычислять
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eventual
the process of economic development would drive market transition forward and guarantee its eventual success |
возможный,
конечный, окончательный |
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exchange
The simplest way to do so is simply to use the prevailing exchange rate |
обмен; бартер
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expand, expansion
China clearly can continue to expand its manufacturing sector for a longer period than if it were not so integrated into world industry |
растягиваться, расширяться; увеличиваться в объёме
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experience, to experience
In the European countries that experienced clearly falling death rates by the second half of the nineteenth century, birth rates fell slowly but steadily for about a century. |
опыт,
испытывать, чувствовать, переживать |
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extend, extension, extent, extensive
The result is an extensive misallocation of labor combined with excessive inequality |
extend - простираться, тянуться; длиться
extent - мера, степень, пространство, пределы extensive-большой, всесторонний, исчерпывающий |
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misallocation
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нерациональное использование ресурсов
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fail, failure
...the complete failure of the Chinese government to develop a coherent response to the West, |
неудача, провал, недостаток
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fair
Moreover, these data are fairly reliable back through 1985 because they are based on reasonable calculation of consumer prices in the two sectors |
fair treat очень хорошо выглядящий
fair one 1) женщина 2) любимая женщина чёткий, ясный, полный, в наивысшей степени |
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feasible
This means that introducing irrigation (орошение) water from surface sources without additional drainage capacity is not technically feasible |
реальный, выполнимый, осуществимый, подходящий
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feature
China’s economic development has followed a process that shares many common features of structural change with other developing countries. |
особенность, характерная черта
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flow
Local governments facilitated the flow of capital to rural enterprises |
поток
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force, to force
Farmers were forced to meet procurement quotas established by the state grain monopoly, at low fixed prices. Between 1952 and 1978 the total labor force grew by 191 million. |
сила, насилие, принуждение
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foster
Revival (возрождение) of traditional economic ties meant that proximity to urban areas fostered rural industry growth. |
поощрять, одобрять, стимулировать; воспитывать, обучать
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framework
The Company Law provided a uniform legal framework into which different ownership forms fit. |
структура, строение
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gain, to gain
Foreign-invested firms, finally, continue to gain in importance. ... China gained some breathing space. |
получать, приобретать, звлекать пользу, прирост; увеличение
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gap
Some urban–rural gap is inevitable in a developing economy |
промежуток, интервал
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goal
Without hard budget constraints (принуждение), managers are free to pursue goals like expansion |
задача, цель; место назначения
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gradual
“ZONES”: THE GRADUAL LIBERALIZATION OF THE INVESTMENT REGIME |
постепенный; последовательный
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grow, growth
Most important, the saving and investment decisions made were consistent with stability and sustained (длительный) growth of the economy. |
произрастать, расти
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impede
The emphasis was on the unique institutions that impeded structural change in the urban–rural divide |
мешать, препятствовать, быть помехой чему-л., затруднять
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implement, implementation
The One-Child policy was immediately controversial, particularly since the implementation was extraordinarily strict |
инструмент; средство, выполнять, осуществлять;
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improve, improvement
Productivity probably improves as the work force ages slightly, certainly through the 30s |
улучшаться; совершенствоваться; улучшение, усовершенствование; исправление; развитие
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income
In socialist China membership in the Communist Party was rewarded with a significant income differential |
доход, приход, прибыль; заработок
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inconsistent, consistent
These multiple and inconsistent objectives, however, were precisely the inherent (неотъемлемый) problems |
-несовместимый, несообразный,
-последовательный, стойкий |
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increase, to increase
Economic growth can be visualized as an increase in the total amount of goods and services available. |
возрастание, рост; прибавление,
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incremental
Incremental improvements were made on some Soviet-legacy technologies |
увеличивающийся постепенно
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influence, influence
The socialist price system was thus completely insulated (защищена) from the influence of world prices. |
влияние, действие, воздействие
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insulate
The socialist price system was thus completely insulated (защищена) from the influence of world prices. |
(insulate from) защищать от, отделять
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introduce, introduction
After 1979 the government introduced a variety of profit-retention (coхранение) systems |
вводить, включать.
(introduce into) внедрять, привносить; учреждать |
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labor
Short-term labor markets also developed slowly |
1) труд, работа 2) усилие
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launch
China launched a second wave of industrial reforms during the second phase of transition, after the mid–1990s. |
выпуск новых товаров на рынок, запускать, начинать
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lay, layer
Only authorized goods were allowed to pass through this layer of control. |
lay - непрофессиональный, положить
layer - слой, уровень |
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level off
it has increased to a peak of 512 million tons in 1998 before leveling off. |
выравнивать, делать ровным
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loosen
instead the government loosened control over resources |
ослаблять(ся), становиться слабее
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maintain, maintenance
Organic fertilizers were applied to fields to maintain soil fertility (плодородие) |
поддерживать, сохранять, обслуживать
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measure
Along with measures to reform the core of the planned economy, Chinese reforms also advanced by identifying economic activities that were integrated into the planning mechanism |
мера; единица измерения
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meet demand
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удовлетворять спрос/требования
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meet needs
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удовлетворять нуждам
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moderate
We should expect China’s rapid growth to continue for another decade and then begin to moderate as labor force growth slows down |
умеренный, сдержанный, небольшой
умерять, смягчать, посредничать |
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neglect
The agricultural policies adopted through the 1970s neglected potential gains from diversification and commercialization. |
пренебрежение, игнорирование, заброшенность
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objective
The objective was to enfranchise workers while also creating the unambiguous property-rights structure of a joint-stock company |
цель, стремление
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occur
In addition, many structural changes occur in regular patterns as the economy is reshaped by the actions of many individuals. |
встречаться; попадаться, происходить
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operate
The government is trying to operate a joint venture with the new private manager |
приводить в движение, запускать, управлять
влиять |
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output
Per capita output was still well below the 1955–1957 level |
продукция; выпуск изделий
annual output — годовой объём производства, выпуск продукции за год |
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overlap
Overlapping, redundant controls covered the flows of both goods and money |
перекрытие, совмещение, частичное наложение, совпадение
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overstate
these figures might slightly overstate China’s relative decline. |
преувеличивать, завышать (цены)
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own, owner, to own
By the 1930s, China had basically stopped importing textiles and was instead importing significant quantities of raw cotton to feed its own mills. |
cобственность, принадлежность
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to participate, participant
A very large share of the working-age population does in fact participate in the labor force |
участвовать, принимать участие
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to participate, participant
A very large share of the working-age population does in fact participate in the labor force |
участвовать, принимать участие
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pattern
In addition, many structural changes occur in regular patterns as the economy is reshaped by the actions of many individuals. |
структура, система
образец, модель |
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perform, performance
China tends to improve its relative performance. |
исполнение, выполнение, действие; поступок; поведение
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postpone
In addition, another roughly 30 million births were postponed due to malnutrition (недостаточность, недостаточность) and shortage |
откладывать; отсрочивать, оттягивать
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provide, provision
Successful Chinese industrialists often had some kind of foreign experience or contact with foreign businesses that provided their initial entry into modern industry |
давать, предоставлять; обеспечивать
обеспечение, положение, условие |
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purchase
The Chinese government used its control to purchase low-cost farm products |
покупать, закупать
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purpose
The basic purpose of this phase was to begin the dismantling of the command economy while maintaining economic growth |
цель; замысел, стремление
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pursue
Managers are free to pursue goals like expansion, prestige, and promotion without worrying about profitability |
преследовать (цель) ; следовать намеченному курсу
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rapid
China has undergone an unusual development process, passing through revolution, socialism, and Maoist radicalism, and then rapid economic growth |
быстрый, скорый, стремительный
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rate
There is a north–south gap in growth rates |
темп; скорость
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recover, recovery
The service sector grew rapidly, reflecting its strong recovery from the conditions of the command economy era. |
восстанавливать, выздоравливать
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recover, recovery
The service sector grew rapidly, reflecting its strong recovery from the conditions of the command economy era. |
восстанавливать, выздоравливать
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recover, recovery
The service sector grew rapidly, reflecting its strong recovery from the conditions of the command economy era. |
восстанавливать, выздоравливать
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reduce, reduction
Even with reduced fertility rates, population growth was set to accelerate as China’s “baby boomers” reached marriage age. |
oслаблять, сокращать, уменьшать
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redundant
Many firms restructured and laid off (уволить) redundant workers, or shut down altogether |
1) излишний, избыточный 2) вытесненный из производства
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rely on, reliable
China has been forced to rely on coal, in particular on small-scale coal mines, in order to maintain industrial growth. |
зависеть (от чего-л.), полагаться на
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require, requirement
There has been a corresponding decrease in the amount of coal required to generate a kilowatt-hour of electricity |
приказывать, требовать, нуждаться
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resemble
Although China’s development processes resemble those in other economies, China is unusual in three respects |
походить, иметь сходство
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respond, response
Investors responded to the improved productivity of the economy by stepping up (увелич-ть) investment |
реагировать, отзываться на
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revise
Thomas Rawski (1989) presented revised estimates of aggregate (=total amount) output that imply slow but steady growth in per capita output after the late nineteenth century. |
проверять; исправлять
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satisfy
This can easily satisfy demands of consumers |
удовлетворять
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shape, reshape
Institutions have been reshaped |
создавать, делать (из чего-л.), подгонять, приспосабливать
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share
Unusually in a planned economy, there was also a substantial share of total output allocated by local government planners |
доля, часть; квота
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shift, to shift
This experimental process focused on a steady shift away from plan fulfillment |
изменение; перемещение, сдвиг
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shortage
The purpose of foreign trade was to import goods that could not be produced by Chinese firms and that would resolve domestic shortages |
нехватка, недостаток; дефицит
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shrink, shrinkage
However, these economies experienced a fairly dramatic economic shrinkage after 1996 |
уменьшать, сокращать
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significant
China exhibits significant macroeconomic instability |
значительный, важный, существенный;
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sophisticated
To support growth in agricultural output in all regions, a sophisticated network of agricultural research stations was developed. |
сложный
утонченный |
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space
Provinces are not always the most natural way to divide up China’s economic space. |
пространство
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steady
The steady increase in debt indicated that firms were still subject to soft budget constraints |
устойчивый; прочный, твёрдый
уравновешенный |
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steady
The steady increase in debt indicated that firms were still subject to soft budget constraints |
устойчивый; прочный, твёрдый
уравновешенный |
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steer
China today steers technology import toward “soft” technology licensing . |
руководить, управлять
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strengthen, strength
The first challenge for China is to strengthen its protection of intellectual property rights |
укрепить
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substantial
The innovations of the green revolution could not be applied to the wheat region until substantial infrastructure construction and technology adaptation had taken place. |
а) основной, главный б) значительный
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succeed, success, successful
Indeed, the ultimate success of China will depend on its ability to create stable, efficient institutions. |
(succeed at / in) достигать цели, преуспевать; иметь успех
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successive
It has been followed by many successive waves of relocation |
последующий, следующий
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suit, (un)suitable
Areas were well suited for grain |
подходить
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sustain, sustainability, (un)sustainable
Further broad issues of sustainability relate to the questions of sustainability of land and water resources. |
sustain - поддерживать, защищать
sustainability устойчивость; устойчивое развитие |
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take off , take-off
A new set of conditions was in place that enabled a “takeoff” to occur. |
взлет
начало новой фазы, роста, развития |
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term
The term “soft budget constraint” was coined by Janos Kornai. Here we might term a “double air lock” that controlled flows of both goods and money |
термин, срок
to term - обозначать, давать имя, выражать |
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threaten, threat
A continual tug of war with the desert threatens to advance, rolling over farmlands. |
угрожать, представлять опасность
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trade
The foreign-trade system that Chinese leaders sought to reform in the late 1970s was a typical Soviet-style command-economy model. |
торговля; коммерческая деятельность
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trend
The long-term trend to an increased fixed investment ratio is clear. |
курс, направление
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undergo
China is leaving behind its history as a predominantly agricultural economy as it undergoes rapid industrialization |
испытывать, переносить, подвергаться
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understate
China’s infant mortality rate may also be understated by the omission of some birth reports. |
преуменьшать, недоговаривать
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value, valuable
However, these are predominantly low-value jobs: small-scale retail and repair. |
важность, ценность, полезность
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