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139 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Culture consists of patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups…
1 Clyde Kluckhohn describes culture as
The subjective perception of the human-made part of the environment.
Triandi states culture as:
Shared mental programs that control individual’s response to their environment.
Hofstede, suggests that culture consists of:
Shared, Learned, systematic and organized
Elements of Culture:
Personality: Specific to individuals or inherited and learned.
Culture: Specific to groups or learned
Human nature is universal or biological.
Shared Mental programming
language, systems of government, marriage, religion
Learned culture
Values, attitudes beliefs and behavioral meanings.
Systematic and organized:
Schein describes three levels of culture as
Artifacts, values, and assumptions
Cultures evolve in terms of different solutions to common environmental problems.
Why cultures differ and persist:
Survival, language, religion, other facts like climate, economy and politics
Why cultures differ and persist:
National, convergence or divergence, organizational and effects of acculturation.
Debates Surrounding the concept of culture:
all nations have different cultures, but every nation has multiple cultures
National;
; cultures around the world are becoming similar or different.
Convergence divergence or equilibrium
technology and economic development may have
a homogenizing effect on culture.
organizational comes from within the company.
Organizational vs national Culture
People from different cultures accept and practice host nations culture.
Acculturation and biculturalism
identifying ourselves with a social group places boundaries around group ( in-group) and defines nonmembers are an out group.
Culture and social groups
describes attitudes and behavior within and across cultural group boundaries.
In group
universal bias towards own group is related to role of cultural group in defining who we are.
In-group bias and prejudice:
attitude that one’s own culture is center of everything, and others are evaluated in reference to it.
Ethnocentrism
the interpersonal interaction between people who are culturally different.
1. The most fundamental issue in international management
: Is concerned with the role that our mental representations play in the ways we process information about people or social events
2. Social Cognition
Individuals have a wide array of mental representations on which to draw. Stored in these mental representations are the specific features that define an object, event, or situation and the rules defining their interrelationships
a. Schemas:
These structures are called schemas when they define a categoryand called ______ (more below) when they contain a behavioral sequence.
Scripts
. These structures are called ______ when they define a category, and called scripts (more below) when they contain a behavioral sequence.
schemas
b. We often sort others into groups, which separate them from nonmembers. We also categorize ourselves according to our membership within or outside the social groups in our environment. The total of these social identifications used by people to describe themselves is their
social identity
physical appearance, religion, political views, lifestyle, and country of origin
i. How we categorize others in terms of the characteristics they share
are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by members of our cultural group. They tell us what is expected of us in certain situations.
a. Cultural norms
are a powerful influence on our behavior.
i. The norms of our group with which we identify
1. Facilitate the group’s survival, for ex, by protecting them from other groups
2. Increase the predictability of group members’ behavior
3. Reduce embarrassment for group members
4. Express the central values of the group, that is, clarify the group’s identity
ii. Social groups enforce norms only if they perform one of the following functions
_______ are used in interaction situations based on situational cues.
scripts
ii. Because scripts are _______, members of one’s cultural group can pass them on and reinforce them.
learned
i. Once developed, these scripts are used in interaction situations based on situational _____
cues.
1. How we respond to this behavior depends on our ability to _____ it.
perceive
________ is when we selectively screen out much of what is presented to us by our senses and interpret messages received by our senses in accordance with our own cultural experiences.
a. Selective perception
b. Another way in which information presented by our environment is filtered is through __________
selective avoidance
i. We are attracted to people whom we perceive to be similar to us because this similarity validates our view of the world and the way it should be.
Perceived Similarity and Attraction
iii. Other aspects of similarity, such as communication style, religion and race, national culture, age, and even the preference for particular activities, can also predict interpersonal attraction.
Perceived Similarity and Attraction
ii. When someone agrees with us, this agreement validates our view and provides evidence that we are correct. Disagreement has the opposite effect.
Perceived Similarity and Attraction
___________are a categorization of the characteristics and behavior of a set of individuals.
6. Stereotypic Expectations
i. Early research on stereotypes indicated that people could hold intense stereotypes about other national cultures even though they had never met a person from that culture.
b. National stereotypes
ii. Stereotypes are based on very limited information about others. We use very basic physical or social evidence to categorize people and to organize information about them
b. National stereotypes
i. Once formed, these stereotypic expectations of others tend to become self-perpetuating.
c. Resistance to new information
ii. New information about a member of a culture is often discounted as not representative, thereby maintaining the stereotype.
c. Resistance to new information
i. The_____________ theory suggests that within every complex society certain groups are dominant over others and enjoy a disproportionate amount of privilege
social dominance
__________ helps us understand and react to our environment by linking the observation of an event to its causes.
a. Attribution
i. In order to _______________, we rely on cues from the situation that indicate the extent to which individuals are in control, such as whether or not the behavior is distinctive to a situation, consistent over time, and whether the same behavior is displayed in similar situations.
attribute behavior
i. Because we drive part of our self-identity from our association with our cultural group, we are favorably biased toward that group.
b. Attribution error
we are more likely to attribute desirable behaviors by members of our in-group to internal causes but more likely to attribute desirable behaviors of out-group members to transient external causes.
the ultimate attribution error.
a. If a script does not exist for a situation, the person will give more thought as to how to behave and how such behavior might be perceived.
8. Cross-Cultural Interaction Model
a. If a script does not exist for a situation, the person will give more thought as to how to behave and how such behavior might be perceived.
b. Next, the person perceiving the behavior interprets the meaning of these actions. This interpretation consists of two stages.
i. The first is the identification of the behavior.
ii. The second part is attributing the behavior to a cause.
c. Finally, the perceiver’s attitudes and behavioral response depend on how the behavior is attributed.
Cross-Cultural Interaction Model
b. Next, the person perceiving the behavior interprets the meaning of these actions. This interpretation consists of two stages.
i. The first is the identification of the behavior.
ii. The second part is attributing the behavior to a cause
Cross-Cultural Interaction Model
c. Finally, the perceiver’s attitudes and behavioral response depend on how the behavior is attributed.
Cross-Cultural Interaction Model
a. Culture guides choices by giving meaning and ascribing value to motivational variables.
9. Motivation Across Cultures
i. Culture reflects individuals’ needs but also prescribe the behavior required to satisfy those needs.
9. Motivation Across Cultures
o Culture can be best expressed in the complex interactions of values, attitudes, and behavioral assumptions of a society.
• Describing cultural differences
o Early work in comparative anthropology produced a framework with a good theoretical basis that has influenced how the management literature has conceptualized cultural variation
• Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck Framework
• People have a need or duty to control or master nature (domination), to submit to nature (subjugation), or to work together with nature to maintain harmony and balance (harmony)
 Relationships to nature
• People are inherently good, evil, or a mixture of a good and evil
 Beliefs about human nature
• The greatest concern and responsibility is for one’s self and immediate family (individualist), for one’s own group that is defined in different ways (collateral), or for one’s groups that are arranged in a rigid hierarchy (hierarchical)
 Relationships between people
• People should concentrate on living for the moment (being), striving for goals (achieving), or reflecting (thinking)
 Nature of human activity
• The physical space we use is private, public, or a mixture of public and private
 Conception of space
• People should make decisions with respect to traditions or events in the past, events in the present, or events in the future
 Orientation to time
 Lacks a psychometric instrument that measured these dimensions in a fashion applicable to the managerial context
o Limited
o Classic study of work values. Based on attitude surveys of 117,000 employees of IBM in 40 countries, Hofstede extracted four dimensions
• Hofstede’s Study
• Extent to which one’s self-identity is defined according to individual characteristics or by the characteristics of the groups to which the individual belongs on a permanent basis, and the extent to which individual or group interests dominate.
 Individualism-collectivism
• Extent to which power differences are accepted and sanctioned in a society
 Power distance
• Extent to which societies focus on ways to reduce uncertainty and create stability
 Uncertainty avoidance
• Extent to which traditional female orientations of nurturance and interpersonal harmony
 Masculinity-femininity
o Investigates a possibility that Hofstede’s study might contain cultural bias because it was developed in the West. A group of researchers conducted a subsequent study based on Chinese values. Conducted in 23 countries and similar to Hofstede’s
• Confucian Dynamism
• Examples of which included tolerance, harmony, and solidarity with others; non competitiveness, trustworthiness, and contentedness
 Integration
• Included kindness, patience, courtesy, and a sense of righteousness
 Human-heartedness
• Including order, thrift, persistence, and sense of shame
 Confucian work dynamism
• Including moderation, being disinterested and pure, and having few desires
 Moral discipline
o This measure is an index, which corrected for differences in the variances of each dimension and then arithmetically averaged.
• Cultural Distance
o Represents the relative distance of nations from each other in the multidimensional space defined by the four cultural dimensions.
• Cultural Distance
o Meaningful only as a very broad comparison at the national level
• Cultural Distance
o Conceptualization of culture as a finite number of dimensions
• Criticism of Hotstede’s Study
o Developed from two surveys conducted in 1968 and 1972 inside IBM, which limits the ability to generalize to other organizations whose members might be systematically different.
• Criticism of Hotstede’s Study
 Technical problem is associated with the mathematics of the factor analysis in that there were too few data points for the number of questionnaire items
• Criticism of Hotstede’s Study
 Many of the items within dimensions seem to be unrelated to each other
• Criticism of Hotstede’s Study
 Many of the items related to several of the dimensions
• Criticism of Hotstede’s Study
o Series of studies on the content and structure of human values
• Schwarts Value Survey
o Content of values refers to the criteria people use to evaluate events and select courses of action.
• Schwarts Value Survey
o Identified three universal human requirements
• Schwarts Value Survey
 Nature of the relationship between individual and the group
 Preservation of the society itself
 Relationship of people to the natural world
o Identified three universal human requirements
• Egalitarianism
o Recognition of people as moral equals
• Harmony
o Fitting in with the environment
• Embeddedness
o People and embedded in the collective
• Hierarchy
o Legitimation of unequal distribution of power
• Mastery
o Exploitation of the natural or social environment
• Affective autonomy
o Pursuit of positive experiences
• Intellectual autonomy
o Independent pursuit of own ideas
 Relationship of people to the natural world
 Relationship of people to the natural world
• Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• Universalism is a belief that what is true and good can be discovered and applied universally, whereas particularism is a belief that unique circumstances determine what is right or good
 Universalism-particularism
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• Similar to Hofstede’s definition, this dimension concerns the extent to which people plan their actions with reference to individual benefits versus those of the group
 Individualism-collectivism
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• In neutral cultures, emotion should be held in check, and maintaining an appearance of self0control is important, whereas in affective cultures, it is natural to express emotions
 Neutral-affective
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• This dimension refers to the extent to which individuals allow access to their inner selves to others. In specific cultures, people separate the private part of their lives from the public, wheras in diffuse cultures, these aspects of the individual overlap.
 Specific-diffuse
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• This dimension is about how status and power are determined in a society. In an ascription society, status is based on who a person is, whereas in an achievement society, status is based on what a person does
 Achievement-ascription
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• About past versus future orientations and about the extent to which time is viewed as linear versus holistic and integrative with past and present together with future possibilities
 Time
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
• Extent to which people feel that they themselves are the primary influence on their lives. Environment is seen as more powerful than they are, and people should strive to achieve harmony with it
 Environment
Trompenaar’s Dimensions
o Involved 170 researchers working in 62 different societies and collected date from approximately 17,000 middle managers in 951 managers
• GLOBE study
• The degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action
 Institutional collectivism• GLOBE study
• The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families
 In-group collectivism• GLOBE study
• Degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally
 Power distance• GLOBE study
• Extent to which a society, organization, or groups relies on social norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events
 Uncertainty avoidance• GLOBE study
• Degree to which a collective minimizes gender inequality
 Gender egalitarianism• GLOBE study
• Degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others
 Assertiveness• GLOBE study
• The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards people for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others
 Human orientation• GLOBE study
• Extent to which people engage in future-orientated behaviors such as delayed gratification, planning, and investing in the future
 Future orientation• GLOBE study
• Degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence
 Performance orientation• GLOBE study
o Perhaps the most useful and powerful dimensions of cultural variation in explaining a diverse array of social behavior.
o Individualism is the tendency to view oneself as independent of others and to be more concerned about the consequences for oneself of a particular behavior.
o Collectivism is the tendency to view oneself as interdependent with selected others, to be concerned about the consequences of behavior for one’s reference group, and to be more willing to sacrifice personal interests for the good of this group.
• Individualism and Collectivism
o Major influences on the degree of individualism or collectivism in a society
 Individualism is a result of looseness and complexity
 Collectivism is a result of tightness and simplicity
• Tightness
o Extent to which members of a culture agree about what is correct behavior, believe they must behave exactly according to cultural norms, and believe they will receive or should give severe criticism for even small deviations from cultural norms
• Tightness and Complexity
o Relate to the way in which people view their status relationship with others
• Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions
• see themselves as an aspect of an in-group, but members of the in-group are different in terms of status
 Vertical collectivists
• self is autonomous and people are generally equal. These cultures are characterized by patterns of social behavior that emphasize equit in resource sharing according to contribution and distribution of resources equally among members.
 horizontal individualism
o Extent to which members of a culture agree about what is correct behavior, believe they must behave exactly according to cultural norms, and believe they will receive or should give severe criticism for even small deviations from cultural norms
• Tightness
 Individualism is a result of looseness and complexity
 Collectivism is a result of tightness and simplicity
o Major influences on the degree of individualism or collectivism in a society
o Basic truths or premises or generalized expectancies that relate to a wide range of social behaviors across different contexts
• Social axioms
• Negative view of human nature, a biased view against some groups of people, a mistrust of social institutions, and a disregard of ethical means of achieving an end
 Cynicism
Social axioms
• Beliefs that there are no rigid rules but rather multiple ways of achieving a given outcome and that inconsistency in human behavior is common
 Social complexity
Social axioms
• A general belief that effort, knowledge, and careful planning will lead to 
Reward for application
• Social axioms
• Belief in the existence of supernatural forces and the functions of religious belief
 Spirituality
• Social axioms
• A belief that life events are predetermined and that there are some ways to influence these outcomes
 Fate control
• Social axioms
o The following conditions summarize the care that should be taken when using descriptions of cultures based on a limited number of dimensions, or cultural stereotypes
• Use of frameworks
 They should be ______________, that is, we recognize that we are dealing with limited information
consciously held
Use of frameworks
 They should be limited to describing members of the other cultural group and not contain an ______________________
evaluative component
Use of frameworks
 They should provide an accurate description of the__________of the cultural group
behavioral norm
Use of frameworks
 They should be used as a first ____________about the behavior of a cultural group before direct information about individuals in the group is developed
best guess
Use of frameworks
 They should be modified based on additional information gained about the group through __________________
observation or experience
Use of frameworks
________ is one of the influential environmental factors that effect globalization, but it is the most difficult to understand and the most often neglected.
Culture
the world essentially being formed into one place through the absence of borders and barrier to trade
Globalization
• The level of _____) also as a globalizing effect.
FDI
The result of the changes in trade and ____ flows is a shift in the economic center of the world away from North America and Western Europe
FDI
Virtual organizations in which employees are linked by computer technology are another aspect of changing ________________.
organizational boundaries
• Economic globalization connects countries and organizations in a network of___________________that shape the environment in which global manager must function.
international linkages
• Changes that affect the _________of the work environment within an organization include: downsizing, privatization, and movement toward team-based management
stability
Two recent trends in migration are:
o The increase in women migrants, and
o Today’s migrants is much more likely to be highly skilled
o A third factor influencing the work environment is privatization
Governments in both developed and developing countries are selling state owned businesses to private investors.
o Privatization makes formerly government-controlled enterprises available for purchase by _______, thus reducing boundaries.
foreign firms
SCARY!!

Privatization makes formerly government-controlled enterprises available for purchase by _______, thus reducing boundaries.
• The formations of _______ of workers are being used to solve productivity problems.
teams
Changes in workforce _________ such as cultural diversity, average age of employees, and the hiring of more women are being made.
demographics
• The dramatic advances in _________________ are the most significant forces toward globalization and possess the most potential to shape international management.
information technology
• Though international commerce has existed for a long period, the players involved have increased and changed. U.S. multinationals dominated the postwar period, but in 2006 _____________ were the top host cities for the Fortune Global 500.
Tokyo and France
• Technology has facilitated the entry of _______________ into the international arena
small businesses