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300 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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List Three weak bonds and their properties
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1) Van der walls forces (attraction at close range)
2) Ionic bonds (electrostatic in nature) 3) Hydrophobic interactions (tight association in polar regions) |
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Five most important elements in making up macromolecules and organic compounds
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1) Carbon
2) Hydrogen 3) Oxygen 4) Nitrogen 5) Sulfur |
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Amphiphatic
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Possess both hydrophobic and hydrophillic properities, as in lipids
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Simple Lipids
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consist of only the fatty acid chain(s) bonded to the glycerol molecule (ex. Triglyceride)
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Complex Lipids
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contain additional elements such as nitrogen and sulfur attached to glycerol component
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Three components of Nucleotide
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1) 5-carbon sugar
2) Nitrogen base (attached to C1 carbon via glycosidic bond) 3) molecule of phosphate (PO4) (attached to C5 carbon) |
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Structurally how does DNA differ from RNA?
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DNA has an H attached to the C2 carbon, while RNA has an OH
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Bacteriocins
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plasmids may also allow code for genes that produce proteins that allow bacteria to kill or inhibit related or unrelated strains of bacteria
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Conjugation
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involves cell to cell contacta replicative process whereby both cells end up with copies of the plasmidprocess of genetic transfer
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Episome
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it can integrate into the host chromosome
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Examples of short wavelength
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1) X-rays
2) Cosmic Rays 3) Gamma Rays |
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Generalized transduction
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virus incorporates random fragments of the host bacteria cell's chromosomal DNA into the viral genomeefficiency is low
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Insertional Activation
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foreign DNA is inserted into one of these restriction sites contained within an antibiotic resistant gene, antibiotic resistance will be lost. can be used as a means of selecting transformed bacterial clones that have picked up the insert
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Pilus
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produced by the donor cell. allows for direct contact between the cells
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RecA
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allows homologous recombination to occur which allows transforming DNA to be integrated into the genome of the recipient
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Specialized transduction
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DNA from a specific region of the host bactera chromosome is integrated directly into the virus genome and ususally replaces some of the virus genesefficiency may be very highonly occurs in some temperate viruses
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Spontaneous Mutations can occur because of this
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1) exposure to nautral forms of radiation
2) oxygen radicals 3) base pairing errors during DNA replication |
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Transduction
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bacterial DNA is transferred from cell to cell by a bacterial virusoccurs by generalized transduction or specialized transduction
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Transfection
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introduces bacteriophage lambda into host cellallows DNA fragments up to 20 kb to be clones into lambda
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Why are bacteriophages like lambda advantageous?
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1) transfection rate is greater than the transformation rate of plasmid vectors
2) can hold larger amounts of DNA than most plasmid vectors |
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Allostery |
property that makes the process of feedback inhibition possible |
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Catabolite repression
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ensures that cells always use glucose first. prevents the expression of all other catabolic operons affected by this control mechanism when cells are grown in a medium containing glucose
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Global Control System
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used by cell to make most efficient use of the available carbon source.scell always uses glucose first
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Glucose Effect |
1) best energy source is chosen
2) cell does not waste energy making enzymes for catabolizing the other sugars 3) if glucose is exhausted, next best sugar taken |
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Quorum Sensing
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sensing mechanism involving signaling molecules that allows cells to survey their environment for cells of their own speciesensures that sufficient cell numbers of a given species are present before eliciting a particular biolgoical responsewidespread in gram (-) bacteria
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Sigma factors can also be used for these three different circumstances
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1) Nitrogen assimilation
2) iron transport 3) heat shock |
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Three examples of Quorum Sensing bacteria |
1) V. Fischeri (bioluminescent ability) 2) P. Aeruginosa (produce a biofilm that can prevent antibioltic penetration) 3) S. Aureus (produce peptides that damange host cells and disrupt immune system) |
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Two components of regulatory systems
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1) Specific sensor kinase protein
2) Partner response regulator protein |
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Why does attenuation occur?
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because a portion of the newly formed mRNA folds into a unique stem-loop taht causes cessation of RNA polymerase activity
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3 Key sites on the ribosome
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1) Acceptor Site
2) Peptide Site 3) Exit Site |
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Borrelia burgdorferi
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rare instance of prokaryotes with linear DNA
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composition of 30S subunit
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consists of 16S rRNA and ~21 proteins
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composition of 50S subunit
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consists of 5S and 23S rRNA and ~34 proteins
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DNA gyrase |
produces negative supercoiling in bacteria and Archae. belongs to group of enzymes called "topoisomerases"classified as topoisomerase II |
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how do antibiotics inhibit protein synthesis
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do so by inhibiting the activity of bacterial ribosomes
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How do prokaryotes protect their own DNA
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they do so by modifying through methylation
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How long are prokaryotic subunits
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30S and 50S subunits
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How many different types of tRNAs are in bacteria cells and mammalian cells respectively?
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60 in bacteria100-110 in mammalian cells
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Hybridization
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invovles putting together two DNA strands from different sources. annealing can be used to do this
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Inverted Repeats
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Short repeated sequences in DNA molecules
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methylation
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specific bases within the recognition sequence have methyl groups attached to them
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RNA Longevity |
1) in prokaryotes, mRNA's have short "half lives" (usually only minutes) 2) rRNAs and t RNAs are more stable because of their highly folded structures 3) RNAs are degraded by cellular ribonucleases |
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Structure of tRNAs (4 facts)
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1) short single stranded molecules with extensive secondary structure
2) have lengths of 73-93 nucleotides 3) have conserved and variable regions 4) have cloverleaf structure |
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Supercoiling |
very long DNA molecule can be packaged into the cell because it is further twisted. Can occur in a positive or negative direction |
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the four steps of protein synthesis
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1) Initiation
2) Elongation 3) Termination 4) Release |
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The three types of RNA
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1) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2) Transfer RNA (tRNA) 3) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) |
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Three characteristics of Eukaryotic Genetics
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1) linear DNA
2) chromosomes inside nucleus and ribosomes in the cytoplasm 3) all have introns between exons |
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Three characteristics of Prokaryotic Genetics
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1) circular DNA
2) no membrane separating the chromosome and cytoplasm 3) vast majority have no introns |
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Three facts about plasmids
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1) replicate separately from chromosomes
2) Double Stranded DNA that is usually circular but can be linear 3) Do not cause dammage and do not have extracellular forms |
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Three facts about viruses
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1) Consist of either RNA or DNA
2) control their own replication 3) viral chromosome may be linear or circular |
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What method is preferred for DNA sequencing and what does this method entail?
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The sanger method is used. DNA is sequenced by making a copy of a single stranded DNA template strandpolymerase adds nucleotidesdideoxy analog acts as the specific chain termination reagent
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Metabolism
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Coordination of chemical reactions whereby molecules are organized into specific structures
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Catabolic
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energy releasing reactions
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Anabolic
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energy requiring reactions
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Name 7 Micronutrients
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1) Chromium
2) Copper 3) Selenium 4) Zinc 5) Vanadium 6) Boron 7) Iron |
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Name 7 Macronutrients
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1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen 3) Oxygen 4) Hydrogen 5) Sulfur 6) Phosphorous 7) Manganese |
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Free Energy (G)
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the energy released that is available to do useful work
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Exergonic Reactions
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release energy (negative deltaG)
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Endergonic Reactions
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requires energy (postive deltaG)
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What two things does a catalyst do?
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1) lowers the energy of activation of a reaction
2) increases the rate of reaction |
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Prosthetic Groups
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covalenty bonded very tightly to enzymes permanently
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Cellulase
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enzyme that break down cellulose
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Glucose Oxidase
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catalyzes the oxidation for glucose
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What is the primary electron donor?
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NAD+/NADH
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What is the terminal electron acceptor?
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O2
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What are two mechanisms for energy conservation known in chemoorganotrophs?
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1) Fermentation2) Respiration
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
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cytoplasmic membrane energized by the proton motive force dissipates energy that allows ADP and PO4 to form ATP
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What three classes of protein electron carriers does aerobic respiration use?
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NADH dehydrogenases (accept 2e- or 2H+)
Flavoproteins (accept 2e- or 2H+) Cytochromes (accept single e-) |
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Quiniones
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another type of e- carrier that are non-proteinaccept 2e- or 2H+
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Proton Motive Force
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When e- are transported through the e- transport chain, protons are extruded to the outside of the membrane
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ATP Synthase (ATPase)
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large membrane enzyme catalyst complex that is responsible for the conversion of the proton motive force (pmf) into the production of ATP
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ATPase catalyzed ATP synthesis is referred to as what in respiratory systems?
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oxidative phosphorylation
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ATPase catalyzed ATP synthesis is referred to as what in phototropic systems?
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Photo-phosphorylation
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What is the primary difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?
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Anaerobic respiration uses e- acceptors other than O2, such as NO3-, Fe3+, SO42-, and CO32-
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Photoautotrophy
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Use light as an energy source in the process of photosynthesis
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Gram Stain
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a differential staining technique that dvides bacteria into two groupsGram (+) stain purple and Gram (-) stain red
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Phase Contrast Microscope
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made it possible to see cells without staining them
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Flourescence Microscope
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used to visualize specimens that emit light of a given wavelength
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Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
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Contains a probe that establishes weak atomic forces between probe and the specimen generating digital information that produces an image
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Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy (CSLM)
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Allows for 3-D images of microbes and other biological specimens
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Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
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Resovling power is much greater than a light microscope (1000x)
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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
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Image produced when electron beam is directed onto the specimen
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Four advantages that small microbes have
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1) higher surface to volume ratio compared to large cells
2) Nutrients and waste products pass in and out of the cell more easily 3) Capable of more rapid growth 4) Faster evolutionary change due to faster rate of mutation |
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How is the cytoplasmic membrane stabalized?
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Stabilized by H-bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and some ionic bonds using Mg and Ca ions and cholesterol
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Archae side chains are called these.
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Isoprene Hydrocarbons
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Translocases
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Proteins that help export in prokaryotic cells
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Three characteristics of the cell wall of prokaryotes
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1) cell walls allow the cell to withstand pressure gradients
2) give shape and supply rigidity to the cell 3) Differences in cell wall structure are at the heart of gram staining |
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Peptidoglycan
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A rigid polysaccharide layer composed of sugar derivatives and a small number of amino acids
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How does cross linkage occur in Gram (-) Bacteria?
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It occurs by peptide linkage of the amino group of DAP to the carboxyl group of the terminal D-alanine
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DAP
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Diaminopimelic AcidFound in all Gram (-) bacteria
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What does the glycan backbone consist of?
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Consists of glucosamine and muramic acid
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How does cross linkage occur in Gram (+) bacteria?
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It occurs by way of a peptide interbridge
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Teichoic Acids
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Found in cell walls of Gram (+) bacteria that help bind postively charged ions like Ca and Mg
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LPS (Lipopolysaccharide Layer)
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Outer wall found in Gram (-) bacteriaA second lipid bilayer composes of a phospholipid, protein, and polysaccharide
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Functions of Outer Membrane |
1) Major function is structural 2) Secretes toxic substances called "endotoxins" 3) Provides channels for passage of hydrophillic substances out of the cell using "porin structures" |
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Lysozyme
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breaks bonds between glucosamine and muramic acid in the glycan backbone of peptidoglycan. found in body fluids like saliva and tears
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What bacteria and archae groups both naturally lack cell walls?
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Mycoplasms and Thermoplasma respectively
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pseudo-peptidoglycan
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very similar to peptidoglycansome cell walls of archae consist of this
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What is pseudo-peptidoglycan made of?
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Minuronic acid and glucosamine
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What do some archae have instead of pseduo-peptidoglycan in their cell walls, and what is the most common cell wall type among archae?
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They may have polysaccharide, glycoprotein or protein. most common is paracrystalline surface layer (S-Layer)
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Fimbrae
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Short, filamentous structures that enable the organism to stick to surfacesfound in many pathogens like salmonella and bordetella
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Pilli
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long filamentous structures taht are involved in conjugation which is a form of genetic exchange
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PHB
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carbon/energy storage polymer
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Sulfur
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accumulates as a result of sulfur metabolism from compounds like H2S
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Lophotrichous flagella
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multiple.. in group arrangement on cell
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Peritrichous flagella
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appearing at many locations around the cell surface
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Shape and composition of flagella
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helically shaped. composed of protein "flagellin"
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Mot Complex
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proton movement across cytoplasmic membrane. This drives the rotation of the flagellum
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Taxes
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evolved means of responding to a physical or chemical gradient
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Chemotaxis
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a response to a chemical substance
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Phototaxis
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a response to light
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Aerotaces
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movement towards or away from oxygen
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Osmotaxis
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movement toward or away from conditions of ionic strength
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Amphiphatic
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Possess both hydrophobic and hydrophillic properities, as in lipids
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Complex Lipids
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contain additional elements such as nitrogen and sulfur attached to glycerol component
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Complex Polysaccharides
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When polysaccharides combine with other macromolecules such as proteins and lipids
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Five components of an Amino Acid
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1) Central alpha carbon2) Carboxyl (COOH) group3) Amino (NH2) group4) R or functional group5) Hydrogen attached to C
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Five most important elements in making up macromolecules and organic compounds
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1) Carbon
2) Hydrogen 3) Oxygen 4) Nitrogen 5) Sulfur |
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List Three weak bonds and their properties
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1) Van der walls forces (attraction at close range)
2) Ionic bonds (electrostatic in nature) 3) Hydrophobic interactions (tight association in polar regions) |
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Three components of Nucleotide
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1) 5-carbon sugar
2) Nitrogen base (attached to C1 carbon via glycosidic bond) 3) molecule of phosphate (PO4) (attached to C5 carbon) |
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Three characteristics of Prokaryotic cells
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1) Simple internal Structure
2) no membrane bound organelles 3) 1-5 micrometers longs and 1 micrometer wide |
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Two characteristics of Eukaryotic cells (why they differ from prokaryotic cells)
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1) Larger and more structurally complex than prokaryotic cells
2) Possess membrane bound organelles |
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Viruses differ from other cells in these four ways
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1) viruses are not dynamic, open systems
2) viruses are incapable of taking in nutrients 3) viruses are unable to change or replace their parts 4) viruses have no metabolic abilities of their own |
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Describe the Prokaryotic genome (5 facts)
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1) DNA is large double stranded molecule and the DNA aggregates to form a nucleoid in the cell
2) DNA is circular in most prokaryotes 3) Most prokaryotes have only a single chromosome 4) Many have circular extra chromosomal DNA called plasmids 5) single copy of each gene (haploid) |
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Describe the Eukaryotic Genome (4 facts) in relation to differences of Prokaryotic genome
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1) DNA present in linear double stranded molecules in the nucleus
2) DNA packages and organized into chromosomes 3) Contain special proteins (such as histones) used to help pack and fold DNA 4) Contain two copies of each gene (diploid) |
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Three phylogenetically distinct lineages of cells that have been identified
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1) Bacteria (Prokaryotes)
2) Archae (Prokaryotes) 3) Eukarya (Eukaryotes) |
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Eight ways microbial diversity is demonstrated
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1) Size
2) Morphology 3) Metabolic Strategies (Physiolgoy) 4) Motility 5) Mechanisms of cell division 6) Pathogenicity 7) Development 8) Adaptation to environments |
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Energy (ATP) can be obtained in these three ways in nature
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Source (Type of Microbe)
1) Organic Substances (Chemoorganotrophs (majority)) 2) Inorganic Substances (Chemolithotrophs, unique to prokaryotes) 3) Light (Photosynthetic Autotrophs) |
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Heterotrophs
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Require one or more organic compounds as their carbon source (ex. of carbon sources include glucose and acetate)includes chemoorganotrophs
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Autotrophs
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use CO2 as their sole source of carbonincludes chemolithotrophs and photoautotrophs
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Hyperthermophile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in High temperaturespart of domain archaeexample of habitat hot undersea
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Psychorophile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in low temperatures. Part of domain bacteria. example of habitat sea ice
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Acidophile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in low pH. Part of domain archae. example of habitat acidic hot springs
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Alkaliphile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in high pHPart of Domain ArchaeExample of habitat soda lakes
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Barophile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in high pressurePart of Domain BacteriaExample of habitat deep ocean sediments
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Halophile (List Extreme, Domain, and Habitat)
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Live in salty environmentsPart of Domain ArchaeExample of habitat salterns
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Spirochetes |
bacteria group. unusual helical shape. cause lyme disease |
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Planctomyces
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bacteria group. unusual stalk structure for attachment
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Deinococcus
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bacteria groupmany types are pathogenic or parasitic
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Two characteristics of Archae group
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1) Most archae are "extremeophiles" meaning they live in extremely hostile environments
2) All archae are chemotrophic |
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Two main subdivisions of Archae
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1) Euryarchaeota
2) Crenarchaeota |
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Examples of Bacteria group
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E. coli,
Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Gram positive, Green sulfur, green non-sulfur |
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RNA Bacteriophages
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Small RNA genome of these bacterial viruses is translated directly and encodes only a few proteins
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What conformation do all bacterial RNA viruses have?
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icosahedral conformation
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Phage MS2
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RNA bacteriophage that infects E. coligenome of a SS "plus sense" strand RNAcan be translated directly upon entry into the host
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Icosahedral SS DNA Bacteriophages
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a complementary strand of DNA must be synthesized before transcription can occuronly the (+) strand of DNA is packaged in progeny virions
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intergenic spaces
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spaces in filamentous SS DNA bacteriphage genome that do not encode proteins
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overlapping genes
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1) lysis protein is encoded by a gene that overlaps both the coat protein and the replicase protein2)parts of the genome are read more than once using different reading frames3) common in small genomes to allow more efficient use of the limited sized genome
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Most common morphologies of Archae viruses
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1) Icosahedral head/tail
2) unusual spindle shaped (not seen in bacteria) |
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three facts about Archae viruses
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1) all archae viruses have DS DNA genomes
2) some are linear while others are circularly permuted 3) genome size of archae viruses is very small |
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Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic viruses (3)
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1) Prokaryotes process of transcription and tranlation are coupled while eukaryotes are not
2) prokaryotes can translate polycistronic mRNA while eukaryotic cells cannot 3) transcription occurs in nucleus and translation occurs in cytoplasm in eukaryotes |
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Plant Viruses
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1) first one found was Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
2) has helical symmetry 3) single copy of (+) strand RNA genome 4) genome only encodes 4 proteins |
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Replication of polio virus
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1) begins shortly after infection2) is catalyzed by RNA replicase3) takes place in cell cytoplasm
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Orthomyxoviruses
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"myxo" refers to teh fact that these viruses interact with mucus or slime of the cell surfacehave envelopes consisting of viral proteins and lipoid derived from host cellnucleocapsid portion of virus is embedded in the envelope
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Neuraminidase
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is another surface protein that breaks down the sialic acid component of the host cell membraneotherwise, sialic acid would block viral assembly or beome incorporated into the mature virus particle
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Pox Virus
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linear DS DNAamong the most complex and largest of animal virusesvirus DNA is syntehsized outside the host cell nucleusfirst virus to be studied in detail and to have a vaccine developed for
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Two viruses that use reverse transcriptase to replicate
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1) Retroviruses- have RNA genomes2) Hepadnaviruses- have DNA genomes
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Retroviruses
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have two copies of RNA genome and several enzymesneed these enzymes b/c their RNA genome is not used directly as mRNAinstead, one of the copies of the genome is coverted to DNA by reverse transcriptase and is integrated into the host cell genome
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3 enzymatic activities of Reverse Transcriptase
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1) synthesis of DNA from an RNA template
2) Synthesis of DNA from a DNA template 3) Ribonuclease H activity that degrades the RNA strand of a DNA:RNA hybrid |
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Hepadnaviruses
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hepatitis B virusvery small genomes/structurallyuse overlapping enese effectivelyis replicated through an RNA intermediate
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Viral DNA polymerase possesses these three functions
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1) DNA Polymerase Activity2) Reverse Transcriptase Activity3) Ability to function as a protein primer on the (-) DNA strand
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Virulence
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The qualitative measure of pathogenicity determined by invasiveness, toxicity and other factors
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Opportunistic Pathogen
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causes diseases in the absence of normal host resistance
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Differing Environments for infection
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Skin (Dry environment)
Lungs (Oxygenated Environment) Large Intestine (anaerobic environment) |
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What determines if tissue infection occurs?
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The type of microbe association with mucosal surface
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True or False: Human skin is generally not a favorable place for microbial growth
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True
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What factors increase resident microflora?
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1) Weather
2) Age 3) Hygiene |
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Four types of nutrients for pathogen
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Vitamins, amino acids, sugars, organic acids
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Siderophores
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proteins that remove iron bound to transferrin
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Attenuation
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the loss of virulence by a microbe or a strain
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Three toxins produced by Salmonella
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1) Enterotoxin
2) Endotoxin 3) Cytotoxin |
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Endotoxin
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LPS layer toxin that beocmes toxic when solubilized
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Cytotoxin
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toxin that inhibits host cell protein synthesis by inducing a leak of calcium ions forom the host cell
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How does salmonella establish infection?
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Through intracellular parasitism grow inside cells that line the intestins as well as in phagocytic cells of the host immune system
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Virulence Factors
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extracellular proteins produced by pathogens that aid in teh establishment and maintenance of a disease
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Hyaluronidase
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breaks down hyaluronic acid in host cells"intercellular cement"
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Streptokinase
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dissolves clotsproduced by streptococcus pyogenes
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coagulase
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promotes clot formations. produced by s. aureus
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After the first exposure to an antigen, what happens?
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A primary adaptive immune response stimulates growth and multiplication of antigen-reactive cells
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Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are soluble proteins made by what?
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Made by B cells in response to exposure to nonself antigens.
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Antigen-presenting cells include what three cells?
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1) monocytes2) macrophages3) dendritic
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How are antibodies distinguished one another?
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By their amino acid sequence.
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How does an autoimmune disease occur and result in?
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It occurs when T and B cells are reactivated to produce immune reactions against self-proteins.It results in host tissue damage.
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Lymph nodes contain a high concentration of what two things?
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1) lymphocytes
2) phagocytes |
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coagulase |
promotes clot formations. produced by s. aureus |
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Myeloid cells can be derived into what two categories?
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1) Antigen-presenting cells (APC's): engulf, process, and present antibodies to lymphocytes
2) Granulocytes:contain toxins or enzymes that are released to kill target cells |
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Name four different ways an immunization can be prepared that eliminate exposure to microbes.
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1) Synthetic peptides2) Recombinant-vector vaccines3) Recombinant-antigen vaccines4) DNA vaccines
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T/F: TH2 cells interact directly with pathogen.
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False. TH2 cells stimulate other cells like antigen-reactive B cells.
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What allows B cells to be successful in ingesting pathogens?
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B cells have antibodies on their cell surface that directly interact with antigens to cause B cells to ingest pathogens by phagocytosis.
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What are cytokines and chemokines?
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They are proteins and molecular mediators of inflammation
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What are specialized leukocytes involved exclusively in adaptive immune response?
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Lymphocytes
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What are superantigens?
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They are proteins capable of eliciting a very strong response because they activate more T cells than a normal immune response. They interact with TCRs and are produced by viruses and bacteria.
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What are the first to arrive at an infection and how are they attracted to they site?
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Neutrophils are the first to arrive at infection. They are attracted to the site by interleukins.
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What are two T lymphocyte subsets?
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1)T-cytotoxic (Tc) cells:2)T-helper (Th) cells:
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What are two types of lymphocytes? And where do they originate and mature?
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1) B-cells: originate and mature in bone marrow2) T-cells: originate in bone marrow, but mature in thymus
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What do T-cytotoxic cells do?
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1) Recognize antigen presented by MHC 1 protein on an infected cell2) Kill antigen-bearing target cells directly
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What do T-helpers cells do?
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1) Interact with peptide-MHC II complexes on the surface of antigen-presenting cells2) Act through cytokines to promote immune reactions
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What does the lymphatic system do?
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It is s separate circulatory system that drains lymph fluid from extravascular tissue.
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What exchange occurs in capillary beds?
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Leukocytes and solutes pass from blood into the lymphatic system.
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What is a leukocyte?
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a nucleated cell in blood, aka white blood cell.
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What is adaptive immunity?
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It is the acquired ability to recognize and destroy a particular pathogen or its products.
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What is agammeglobulinemia?
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It is an immune deficiency where patients cannot produce antibodies because of genetic defects in their B cells.
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What is DiGeorge's syndrome?
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It is an immune deficiency and is a developmental defect that prevents maturation of the thymus and inhibits production of mature T cells.
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What is hypersensitivity?
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It is an inappropriate immune response that results in host damage.*Two kinds: immediate and delayed hypersensitivity.
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What is innate immunity?
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(built in immunity) It is the noninducible, preexisting ability to recognize and destroy a pathogen or its products.
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What is the difference between artificial active immunity and artificial passive immunity?
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Artificial active immunity: One is exposed to a controlled dose of a harmless antigen to induce formation of antibodies.Artificial passive immunity: One is injected with an antiserum derived from an immune individual.
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What is the difference between immediate and delayed hypersensitivity? |
Immediate: Allergy. Caused by release of vasoactive products from mast cells coated with IgE. Occurs within minutes after exposure. Delayed: Cell-mediated hypersensitivity characterized by tissue damage due to inflammation responses produced by TH1 inflammatory cells. Symptoms occur after several hours. |
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What is the difference between Natural active immunity and Natural passive immunity.
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Natural Active Immunity: develops by acquiring an infection that initiates an adaptive immune response.Natural Passive Immunity: develops through antibody transfer across the placenta or in breast milk.
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What is the portion of blood that does not have cells or clotting proteins?
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Serum
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What is the primary antibody response?
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When activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce soluble antibodies.
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What is the secondary antibody response?
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When subsequent exposure to the same region induces memory.
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What two things can antibodies bind to and what is the purpose of this binding?
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Antibodies can bind to pathogens and toxins (active or inactive). They bind to provide a target to proteins of the complement system so they can lyse or opsonize the antigen.
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What will happen if the inflammation doesn't localize the pathogen?
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The reaction becomes widespread and can lead to septic shock, a life threatening condition.
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Beta-Lactam Antibiotic
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a member of a group of antibiotics including penicillin that contain four-membered heterocylic B-Lactam ring
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Biofuel
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a fuel made by microorganisms from the fermentaion of carbon-rich feedstocks
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Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic
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an antimicrobial drug useful in treating a wide variety of bacterial disease caused by both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria
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DNA Vaccine
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a vaccine that uses the DNA of a pathogen to elicit an immune response
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Exoenzyme
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an enzyme produced by a microorganism and then excreted into the environment
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Extremozyme
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an enzyme able to function in one or more chemical or physical extremes, for example high temp or low pH
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Primary Metabolite
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a metabolite excreted during a microorganism's exponential growth phase
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Protease
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an enzyme that degrades proteins by hydrolysis
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Reverse Transcription
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the conversion of an RNA sequences into the corresponding DNA sequence
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Secondary Metabolite
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a metabolite excreted from a microorganism at the end of its exponential growth phase and into the stationary phase
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Tetracycline
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a member of a class of antibiotics containing the four-membered naphthacene ring
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Acetyl-CoA Pathway
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a pathway of autotrophic CO2 fixation and acetate oxidation widespread in obligate anaerobes including methanogens, acetogens, and sulfate-reducing bacteria
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Anaerobic Respiration
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respiration in which some substance, such as SO4 or NO3, is used as a terminal electron acceptor instead of O2
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Anoxic
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oxygen free
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Denitrification
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anaerobic respiration in which NO3 or NO2 is reduced to nitrogen gases, primarily N2
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Fermentation
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anaerobic catabolism of an organic compound in which the compound serves as both an electron donor and an electron acceptor and in which ATP is usually produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
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Glyoxylate Cycle
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a series of reactions including some citric acid cycle reactions that are used for aerobic growth on C2 or C3 organic acids
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Hydrogenase
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an enzyme, widely distributed in anaerobic microorganisms, capable of oxidizing or evolving H2
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Methanogen
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an organism that produces methane (CH4)
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Methanotroph
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an organism that can oxidize CH4
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Methylotroph
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an organism capable of growth on compounds containing no C-C bonds; some are methanotrophic
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Oxygenase
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an enzyme that catalyzes the incorporation of oxygen from O2 into organic or inorganic compounds
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Pentose Phosphate Pathway
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a major metabolic pathway for the production and catabolism of pentose (C5 sugars)
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Secondary fermentation
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a fermentation in which the substrates are the fermentation products of other organisms
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Stickland Reaction
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the fermentation of an amino acid pair
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Syntrophy
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a process whereby two or more microorganisms cooperate to degrade a substance neither can degrade alone
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16S rRNA
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a large polynucleotide (+1500 bases) that functions as part of the small subunit of the ribosome of Bacteria and Archaea and from whose gene sequence evolutionary information can be obtained; its eukaryotic counterpart is 18S rRNA
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Archaea
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phylogenetically related prokaryotes distinct from Bacteria
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Bacteria
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phylogenetically related prokaryotes distinct from Archaea
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DNA-DNA Hybridization
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the experimental determination of genomic similarity by measuring the extent of hybridization of DNA from one organism with that of another
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FAME(fatty acid methyl ester
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a technique for identifying microorganisms from their fatty acids
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FISH(Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization)
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a staining technique for phylogenetic studies
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GC Ratio
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in DNA from an organism, the percentage of the total nucleic acid that consists of guanine and cytosine bases
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Horizontal Gene Transfer
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the transfer of DNA from one cell to another, possibly distantly related, cell
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Monophyletic
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in phylogeny, a group descended from one ancestor
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Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST)
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a taxonomic tool for classifying organisms from gene sequence variations in several housekeeping genes
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Phylum
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a major lineage of cells in one of the three domains of life
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Proteobacteria
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a large group of phylogenetically related, gram-negative Bacteria
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Extremozyme
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an enzyme able to function in one or more chemical or physical extremes, for example high temp or low pH
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Hvilke bakterier er udelukkende respirerende |
1. Micrococcus 2. Streptomyces 3. Mycobacterium 4. Pseudomonas |
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Hvilke bakterier er udelukkende fermenterende |
Clostridium og streptococcus |
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Hvilke bakterier er både fermenterende og respirerende |
Straphylococcus Bacillius Escherichia Coli |
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Hvilke bakterier kan lave anaerobisk respiration |
Pseudomonas Desulfovibrio |
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Hvilke bakterier kan lave fotosyntese |
Rhodospirillium |
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Hvilke bakterier kan lave nitrogenfiksering |
Azotobacter Clostridium Rhodospirilium Rhizobium Frankia Cyanobakterier |
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Forklar heterotrofe bakteriers og virus’ rolle i kulstofkredsløbet i det pelagiske økosystem og diskuter hvorstor en andel af det døde organiske kulstof i havet der ender med at blive transporteret videre til højere trofiskeniveauer. |
Heterotrofe baktierier og virus er afhængige af det dødeorganiskestof, som findes i det pelagiske lag, da de ikke selv kan nedbrydedet. En større nedbrydning af DOM medfører en større algeproduktion, da der erdirekte korrelation mellem disse. |
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Nævn eksempler på kvælstofforbindelser der indgår i puljen af organiske kvælstof. Beskriv de bakterielle processer der indgår i kvælstofkredsløbet |
N2 – bliver omsat at bakterier NO3- - Bliver produceret af bakterier NH4+ - bliver omsat af bakterier |
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Diskuter under hvilke omstændigheder der kan opstå iltfrie miljøer i vandsøjlen. |
1. Når der er mørkt, bliver der ikke produceret organiskstof --> ingen bakterier --> ingen primærproduktion 2. Når der er dårlig omrøring 3. Hvis vandsøjlen er meget dyb |
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Forklar baggrunden for den dybdemæssige zonering af de mikrobielle processe |
Idet at der ikke er ilt nok til at køre normal respiration,vil der komme nye respirations pathways, som ikke kræver ilt for at kunne køre.Energiudbyttet er størst hos de pathways, der bruger mest ilt. Det ersulfatrespirationen som er vigtigst, da det er sulfat der er mest af. |
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Forklar hvilken rolle sulfid spiller i sedimenter, og hvilke mikrobielle og kemiske processer der bidrager til omdannelsen af dette. |
Sulfid binder sig til jern i sedimentet og dannerjernsulfid. Derudover er det meget giftigt, og må derfor helst ikke slippe optil jordbunden. Det er en gas, og dets opslipning bliver forhindret afkemoautotrofe bakterier, som oxiderer, samt mængden af jern, som det kan dannejernsulfid med. |
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En del af det organiske stof der lander på bunden deponeres. Forklar baggrunden for dette |
Nårman er ved bunden er der meget iltfrit og derfor er omsætningen meget lav.Derfor er der meget der deponeres. |
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Forklar den sæsonmæssige variation i bundens iltforbrug |
Omrøring Sol Havstrømme |
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Forklar bakteriernes rolle i kvælstofomsætningen i havbunden og sæsonvariation i ammoniumfrigivelsen . |
Detses at de er mest aktive i sommermånederne. Dette giver fin mening, da vi kanse at de lever af det organiske stof, som bliver produceret af blandt andetsollys. Derfor giver det god mening sommer --> meget sollys og varme --> flere bakterier --> mere kvælstoffiksering. |
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Opgave 10: Hvad er skæbnen af det ammonium der frigives til vandsøjlen? |
Det går til algevækst og medfører en algeopblomstring. Det er dette der driver primærproduktionen på den lange bane |
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Hvilke ingredienser vil du tilsætte mediet for at dyrke følgende bakterier på hver sin agarplade og hvordan vil du inkubere pladerne? a) Escherichia Coli b) Nitrificerende bakterier |
A) glukose + 37 grader B) ammonium + 20-30 grader |
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Aerobtrespirerendebakteriersamtdenitrificerendebakterierogsulfat-‐reducerendebakterierkanallerespirereglukose. a) Hvilkeelektronacceptorerbenytterhverafdetregrupper? b) Hvilkenafdetregrupperfårdetmindsteenergiudbytteunderrespirationafglukose?Begrundditsvar |
a) aerobt respirerende = O2 Denitrificerende = nitrat sulfat reducerende = sulfat b) Sulfat, da det er meget svært at nedbryde, og derfor har et meget lavt reduktionspotentiale |
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Beskrivforskellemellemforgæring(fermentation)ogrespiration. |
Respiration fås ATP fra oxidativ fosforylering Fermentering bruger det samme som elektrondonor og elektronacceptor |
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Angivmetoder/strategier,derkanbenyttestilathæmmevækstenafbakterier. |
nærringsstoffer, pH, Temperatur, tilfældig mutagenese, tryk, Ild |
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En patient bliver indlagt med en alvorlig infektion. Efter gentagne doser af den naturlige Penicillin G fra Penicillium ses ingen bedring i patientens tilstand. Giv mulige forklaringer på dette. |
Den er gram negativ, resistent eller det er en virus |
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Beskriv de tre forskellige mekanismer for horisontal overførsel af gener mellem bakterier. Diskuter hvilken af disse mekanismer,der har størst betydning for spredning af antibiotikaresistens gener, og i hvilke miljøer der vil være øget risiko for spredning af resistensgener til humant patogenebakterier. |
Transformation, Transduktion og Konjuktion |
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Gram-positiv |
Har tykt lag af peptidoglykan. Relativt tyk lag af membran. Optil 25 lag Cellevæggen indeholder: Peptidoglykan, proteiner, fosforylerede polyalkholer |
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Gram-negativ |
Har meget småt lag af peptidoglykan, kun meget få lag. Relativ tynd membran. et lag af periplasma er på hver side af peptidoglykan Yderste lag er lipopolysaccharider og proteiner. Cellevæggen indeholder peptidoglykan, periplasma og den ydre membran |
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Cytoplasma-membranen hos bakterier |
Binding mellem glycerol og sidekæde: Esterbinding Sidekæde: Ligekædede fedtsyrer Forstærkning: Hopanoider Lipidlag: to lag |
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Cytoplasma-membranen hos Eukaryoter |
Binding mellem glycerol og sidekæde: Esterbinding Sidekæde: Ligekædede fedtsyrer Forstærkning: Steroler Lipidlag: to lag |
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Cytoplasma-membranen hos Archaea |
Binding mellem glycerol og sidekæde: Æterbinding Sidekæde: Isoprenmoduler Forstærkning: Ingen Lipidlag: To eller enkelt lag |
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Uniporter, Antiporter, og symporter |
Uniporter: Kan kun transportere et bestemt stof igennem Antiporter: Kan transportere forskellige stoffer men kun hver sin vej Symporter: Kan transportere forskellige stoffer samme vej |
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ABC transport og gruppe translokation |
ABC står for ATP-binding Cassette. Det kan binde sig til et substrat, og transportere det igennem membranen på den måde. transporten er drevet af ATP Gruppe translokation er en kemisk modifikation af transport molekylet |
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Transport ud af cellen |
Efflux pumper: Fjerner affaldsstoffer og andre uønskede ting og sager Translokaser: Eksporterer proteiner (meget vigtig for gram positive) Sekretionssystemer (især for gram negative) De fjerner: - Enzymer - Toksiner - Effektor proteiner - DNA |
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Gram farvning |
En metode til at identificere, hvorvidt en bakterie er gram positiv eller gram negativ Gram positiv bliver lilla og gram negative bliver rød/pink |
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Cellevæggen for Gram negative |
Peptidoglykan: Tyndt Lysozym følsom: nej Penicillin G følsom: Nej Ydre membran: Ja Periplasma: Ja |
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Cellevæggen for Gram positive |
Peptidoglykan: tykt Lysozym følsom: Ja Penicillin G følsomY: Ja Ydre membran: Mangler Periplasma: Nej |
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Cellevæggen for Archaea |
Peptidoglykan: Mangler Lysozym følsom: nej Penicillin G følsom: Nej Ydre membran: Mangler ofte Periplasma: nej |
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Cellevæggen for eukaryoter |
Peptidoglykan: Mangler Lysozym følsom: nej Penicillin G følsom: nej Ydre membran: Mangler Periplasma: Nej |
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Endosporer |
Findes kun i gram positive. Det er et overlevelsesstadie, som er meget modstandsdygtigt. Har høj Ca2+ koncentration |
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Forskellige vækstfaser |
Lag phase Exponential phase Stationary phase Death phase |
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Biofilm |
Yder beskyttelse mod antibakterielle stoffer og fagocytose Giver mulighed for et metabolisk samarbejde |
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Forskellige vækstkontroller |
Sterilisering Desinfektion Hæmning af vækst ved: - Temperatur - Stråling - filtering - vandaktivitet - pH |
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Decimal reduktionsid D |
Den tid det tager før 90% af cellerne dør |
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Forgæring vs oxidation |
Forgæring: – Redox proces uden ekstern terminal elektron acceptor – Danner ATP gennem substrate level phosporylation Oxidation: – Redox proces med ekstern terminal elektron acceptor – Danner ATP gennem oxidativ fosforylering |
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Tælling af virus |
Elektron Mikroskop (EMS) |
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Virulent Livscyklus |
1. Attachment til værtscellen 2. Gennemboring af cellens membran. Virus DNA forlader proteincoat og går ind i cellen 3. Synthesis af proteiner og nukleoider 4. Samling og pakning af nyt DNA og deres dertilhørende proteincoats 5. Frigivelse af værtscellen ved at promovering af lysis |
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Hvilke tilpasninger kan psychrophile bakterier have for at leve ved lav temperatur |
1. dobbeltbindinger i membranen 2. Tyndere membran 3. Producering af antifryseproteiner - Glycerol -Trehalose -Sukre |
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Redegør for de faktorer der gør bakteries vækst i biofilm til en udfordring ved behandling af infektioner |
1. Pencillin trænger dårligt igennem biofilmen, så bakterierne er godt beskyttet 2. Beskytter for stress 3. Beskytter for udtørring 4. nemmere genudveksling, da de er tættere på hinanden |
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Hvorfor er 16S rRNA genet specielt velegnet til at definere de bakterielle rækker og til at analysere bakteriers evolution |
1. Den har samme funktion i alle bakterier 2. Den har højt konserverede og meget variable regioner 3. Har samme funktion i alle bakterier 4. Har en god størrelse i forhold til analyse |
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Redegør for forskellen mellem generelle og specifikke og transducerende phager |
Generelle: Overfører alle gener med samme sekvens. Ikke super effektivt Specifikke: Overfører bestemte gener med forskellig sekvens. Meget effektivt |
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Nogle bakterier bliver resistente overfor flere antibiotika. Beskriv kort forskellige mekanisme, som kan give anledning til dette fænomen |
1. Effluxpumpe 2. Ændre target 3. producere enzymer, som betalactamase, som nedbryder pencillin 4. Ændre permeabilitet 5. Plasmider som koder for mange resistente gener 6. Et enkelt gen, som koder for flere forskellige slags resistenstyper |
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Hvilke fordele giver det patogene bakterier at danne en kapsel |
1. Fysisk beskyttelse 2. Hjælper til at beskytte bakterien, ved at gøre den mindre genkendelig, da den skjuler antistofferne |
