Brain And Behavior 2

Front 1

neural plate

Back 1

small patch of ectodermic tissue on the dorsal surface of developing embryo; first stage of neural development in all vertebrae

Front 2

neural tube

Back 2

Neural tube develops from neural plate; if dysfunction occurs, spina bifada can develop

Front 3

neural crest

Back 3

just dorsal to neural tube; formed from cells that break off from neural tube; develop into peripheral nervous system (migrate very far)

Front 4

the "organizer" cell layer

Back 4

mesoderm

Front 5

prenatal brain development phase 1

Back 5

induction of neural plate

Front 6

prenatal brain devel phase 2

Back 6

proliferation

Front 7

prenatal brain deve phase 3

Back 7

migration and aggregation

Front 8

prenatal brain deve phase 4

Back 8

axon/dendrite growth and synaptogenesis

Front 9

prenatal brain deve phase 5

Back 9

cell death and synaptic rearrangement

Front 10

totipotent

Back 10

cell has the ability to develop into any type of cell (early stage)

Front 11

multipotent

Back 11

neural plate cells can develop into any type of cell in the nervous system

Front 12

where does cell division occur during proliferation?

Back 12

ventricular zone

Front 13

pattern of proliferation is controlled by what?

Back 13

chemicals released from the organizer areas of neural tube

Front 14

embryonic cell layers (outer to inner)

Back 14

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

Front 15

what form are cells in during migration?

Back 15

immature (no axons/dendrites)

Front 16

two directions cells can travel during migration

Back 16

radially (straight line away from ventricular zone); tangentially (right angle to radial migrations)

Front 17

two methods of cell migration (in phase 3 of prenatal neural development)

Back 17

glia-mediated translocation: cells move along glia, looks like a snake swallowing a rat, can only move radially! somal translocation: cell extension reaches out (explorative) and pulls cell along after, retracts extension

Front 18

why is timing of migration important?

Back 18

when a cell migrates determines what its role will be; outer layers move first

Front 19

what guides cells during migration?

Back 19

chemicals attracting and repelling them

Front 20

what is aggregation?

Back 20

migrated cells linking up to form functional relationships

Front 21

what are cell adhesion molecules? what is a condition that can develop if mutation occurs?

Back 21

molecules on outer layers of cells that allow cells to recognize and link together; mutation can cause Downe's syndrome

Front 22

during what phase of prenatal neural development are gap junctions present?

Back 22

phase three, during aggregation; they don't know why though

Front 23

what are filopodia?

Back 23

extensions from growth cones on axons/dendrites

Front 24

what did sperry's classic study prove?

Back 24

that neurons have a predetermined way of growing, and do not simply grow in one direction

Front 25

what are axon and dendrite growth likely guided by?

Back 25

chemical signals, topographic arrangement (cells in one area grow to same place)

Front 26

what do we know about synapse formation?

Back 26

when it occurs (after cell maturity), but not why or how. theory that glia play a role in synaptogenesis

Front 27

what percentage of neurons die in phase 5 of prenatal neural development? why?

Back 27

50%! normal and healthy. the extra were redundant and losing them allows the brain more plasticity

Front 28

two theories of cell death:

Back 28

necrosis: passive process; cell breaks off and spills contents into extracellular space, causing inflammation
apoptosis: active process; cell without enough neutrophins triggers genetic program that packages up cell material for cell suicide :(, scavenger microglia are alerted and go clean up the mess

Front 29

why does synapse rearrangement occur?

Back 29

after cell death, connections are inefficient; rearrangement focus output of neuron onto fewer postsynaptic cells, allowing for more specific and orderly transmission

Front 30

how does the rate of human brain development compare with other species? how much does brain volume increase after birth?

Back 30

very slow! volume quadruples from birth to adulthood.

Front 31

synaptogenesis

Back 31

creation of new synapses but not new cells; thought to be related to change in function of brain area

Front 32

differences in rate of synaptogenesis in brain areas:

Back 32

fastest in primary auditory/visual cortices 7-8mos postnatal; two years for prefrontal cortex

Front 33

when do primary visual/auditory cortices have the most synapses? prefrontal cortex?

Back 33

3 years postnatal for prim vis/aud cortices, adolescence for prefrontal cortex

Front 34

true/false: at adulthood, you have the most synapses and synaptogenesis rate is fastest

Back 34

FALSE, varies throughout life, adult levels are lower.

Front 35

increased myelination and increased dendritic branching are responsible for what?

Back 35

increase in brain volume! (myelination roughly parallels synaptogenesis growth)

Front 36

describe development of white matter in a lifespan

Back 36

increases slowly and steadily until adulthood, goes down from there

Front 37

gray matter development:

Back 37

happens in an inverted U shape; when a brain area has maximum gray matter (higher than adult levels), this correlates with functional maturity of that brain area

Front 38

two brain areas that reach functional maturity (maximum gray matter) early:

Back 38

motor and visual cortices

Front 39

functions of prefrontal cortex:

Back 39

-planning/carrying out
-working memory
-decision making
-appropriate social behaviors

Front 40

what is object permanence? when does it develop?

Back 40

7-12 months, a baby understands that even if an object is out of sight, it still exists

Front 41

what is perserverance? when does it develop? what part of the brain is responsible for it?

Back 41

2nd year of life, baby understands that if an object placed under X several times and then placed under Y once, object will be found under Y. prefrontal cortex!

Front 42

what are permissive experiences? example?

Back 42

experiences that trigger genetic programs to be manifested; if experience doesn't happen, gene will not develop. ex) language, as in feral children or Genie's cases.

Front 43

what are instructive experiences? example?

Back 43

contribute to the direction of development. ex) language will not develop fully in an unenriched environment, particularly related to wealth.

Front 44

critical period

Back 44

if experience does not occur within time frame, skill will not develop. very few true critical periods

Front 45

sensitive period

Back 45

if experience does not occur within time frame, will have very weak influence on development. ex) language, specifically grammar

Front 46

general principle regarding effects of experience on development of neuron circuits:

Back 46

if neuron circuits, once formed, are not used, they will not survive. if you don't use it, ya lose it, suckaz!

Front 47

effects of environmental enrichment/deprivation (tested in rats):

Back 47

enriched environment: perform better on memory and learned behavior tasks, heavier hippocampus, more dendritic branching, more synapses. deprivation: low performance :(

Front 48

if one area of the brain is not being used, what will happen? example?

Back 48

another area will take over. if you cover an eye even for a few days during sensitive period of development, there will be permanent synaptic rearrangement

Front 49

if heavy exposure occurs during development, what effect does this have on brain? example?

Back 49

brain area will become larger; auditory increases with music exposure

Front 50

what was the owl experiment? what did it show?

Back 50

rotated heads 23 degrees, auditory system reorganized 23 degrees to compensate. showed brains plasticity and ability to organize to compensate for changes

Front 51

when are most neurons formed by? what are the exceptions? what activity possibly influences neurogenesis?

Back 51

7 months prenatal, except olfactory bulb and hippocampus; physical exercise

Front 52

monkey experiment:

Back 52

induced strokes; one monkey was prevented from using "good" arm, the other was not. monkey who couldn't use good arm lost less brain area and recovered more functionality. shows power of cortical rearrangement.

Front 53

how are skeletal muscles connected to bones? what causes them to move?

Back 53

connected to bones by tendons, move by contractions,

Front 54

what are muscles made up of? what controls them?

Back 54

muscles fibers; innervated by motor axons

Front 55

how many muscle fibers are controlled by an axon (max and min)?

Back 55

3 to 1000s.

Front 56

in absence of stimulus, muscle....

Back 56

relaxes, duhhh.

Front 57

how do we get a range of motion?

Back 57

opposing pairs of muscles at joints

Front 58

flexor muscles:

Back 58

bend joints when contracted

Front 59

extensor muscles:

Back 59

extend joints when contracted

Front 60

antagonistic muscles (example too):

Back 60

opposing sets of muscles, biceps and triceps

Front 61

what is referred to as the "final common pathway" for movement?

Back 61

motor neurons, because we only do what they tell us to.

Front 62

where are cell bodies of motor neurons found?

Back 62

spinal cord and cranial nerve nuclei (control facial movements)

Front 63

neuromuscular junctions:

Back 63

where motor neuron meets muscle fiber

Front 64

describe acetylcholine's role in neuromuscular junctions

Back 64

excitatory neurotransmitter; binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postsynaptic cell, ionotropic and causes sodium channels to open and sodium floods cell, can cause action potential; action potential will produce wave of contractions

Front 65

what is the activated site on a muscle fiber called?

Back 65

YOUR MOM. jklolz, motor-end plate

Front 66

what is a muscle twitch?

Back 66

a single wave of contractions in the muscle, caused by an action potential arriving in the neuromuscular junction

Front 67

why does the firing rate of action potential increase in muscles?

Back 67

to allow an action to have more force

Front 68

define recruitment

Back 68

process of increasing the number of motor units firing within muscles to increase force

Front 69

what type of poisoning causes muscle weakness, paralysis, or even death? what does it do in the neuromuscular junction?

Back 69

curare poisoning; blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors preventing action potentials in neuromuscular junction

Front 70

what is the disease whose name literally means "muscle weakness"? what type of disease is it? what happens if you have it?

Back 70

myasthenia gravis, autoimmune disease, immune systems produce protein that attacks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Front 71

true/false: mary broadfoot walker was the bomb, and the white man screwed her over.

Back 71

TRUE.

Front 72

what drug did dr mary walker create? what subsequent drug cures her drug's side effects?

Back 72

pyridostigmine; atropine (eliminates nausea by blocking acetylcholine receptors in other places)

Front 73

what do muscle spindles do? where do they send information?

Back 73

spindles give information about muscle length; attached to a muscle fiber; each sends info to the spinal cord, which sends motor info back to muscle

Front 74

stretch reflex is:

Back 74

brief strong contraction of muscle that is temporarily lengthened

Front 75

how does a reflexive movement work (on knee, for example)?

Back 75

hit knee, spindle is lengthened causing action potential in sensory neurons, motor neurons have action potentials, muscle contracts

Front 76

two cortices in the pyramidal system, and their inputs/outputs

Back 76

secondary motor cortex(made up of supplementary and premotor cortices): sends information to primary motor cortex, gets input primarily from dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex. primary motor cortex: input from secondary, major point of departure for motor signals; the larger the movement area, more skillful the move.

Front 77

this system crosses over at the medulla.

Back 77

pyramidal motor system!

Front 78

what happens if you damage the secondary motor cortex?

Back 78

difficulty sequencing movements

Front 79

where does the pyramidal system begin and end?

Back 79

cortices to spinal cord

Front 80

name and describe dorsolateral tracts.

Back 80

dorsolateral cortico spinal tract: direct tract, runs from cortex to spinal cord. dorsolateral corticorubro spinal tract: indirect pathway, go from cortex synapse at red nuclei and then go to spinal cord.

Front 81

which motor pathway can communicate with the cranial nerves?

Back 81

dorsolateral corticorubro spinal tract

Front 82

which set of motor pathways is responsible for the brain's contralateral peripheral control?

Back 82

dorsolateral tracts (left lobe = right side of body)

Front 83

name and describe the ventromedial tracts.

Back 83

ventromedial cortico spinal tract: direct pathway, goes from cortex to both sides of spinal cord. ventromedial cortico brain stem spinal tract: indirect, made up of tectum. tectum colliculi that help process auditory and visual information communicate

Front 84

true/false: ventromedial tracts are a more concentrated form of communication than the dorsolateral tracts.

Back 84

false, more diffuse.

Front 85

loss of skilled voluntary movements; capable of moving with appropriate force/direction/fine tuning, but are unable to sequence properly

Back 85

apraxia! often not due to damage in motor cortex, sometimes in secondary, but mostly damage is in posterior parietal association cortex

Front 86

loss of voluntary movement in one side of body, often due to damage in motor cortex

Back 86

hemiplagia

Front 87

extrapyramidal systems are primarily composed of _____ and the ______, which help us control _________ and _______ of motions.

Back 87

basal ganglia, cerebellum, control movements (particularly force), precision

Front 88

basal ganglia composed of?

Back 88

caudate and putamen, receptive areas of the basal ganglia. receive info from the substantia nigra (also cortical input). these guys smooth movements out

Front 89

describe flow of information from substantia nigra to motor cortices, in terms of brain structures.

Back 89

substantia nigra to basal ganglia (specifically caudate and putamen), send info to globus pallidus, sends info to thalamus, sends info to motor cortices.

Front 90

what structure degenerates in parkinson's disease, and why does this cause the classic symptoms?

Back 90

substantia nigra; this is where dopamine is produced, which smooths out our movements.

Front 91

genetic disorder that begins in basal ganglia; mutated protein kills neurons; affects motor movements and leads to extreme dementia

Back 91

Huntington's disease :( way way sad

Front 92

Tourette's syndrome

Back 92

thought to be a disorder of the basal ganglia; classic symptoms are tics or outbursts.

Front 93

what do the sensorimotor association areas do?

Back 93

integrate input from various sensory systems; tell us about our body's surrounding environment so we can move safely

Front 94

inputs: visual/auditory/somatosensoryoutputs: eye field, secondary motor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex

Back 94

posterior parietal association cortex

Front 95

dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex

Back 95

inputs: posterior parietal association cortex
outputs: secondary motor cortex, eye field

Front 96

inputs and outputs of cerebellum

Back 96

inputs: vestibular and somatosensory systems, as well as primary and secondary motor cortices

Front 97

what system is the cerebellum part of?

Back 97

extrapyramidal system

Front 98

what does it mean if a function is lateralized?

Back 98

behavioral and cognitive abilities specialized in one hemisphere

Front 99

language is lateralized in the ..... (generally)

Back 99

LEFT hemisphere

Front 100

true/false: motor abilities and sensation are organized contralaterally

Back 100

true dat

Front 101

massive fiber tract bundle that connects hemispheres (though not the only connection)

Back 101

corpus callosum

Front 102

t/f: each eye contributes to one visual field

Back 102

false

Front 103

left retina receives information from which eye?

Back 103

right eye

Front 104

optic chiasm:

Back 104

place where half of axons from each eye cross over to opposite side of brain

Front 105

ears are responsible for information only...

Back 105

from their own side of the head

Front 106

when you have competing auditory information, what do you pay attention to?

Back 106

information from opposite side of head

Front 107

people with severed corpus callosum give us valuable information about what?

Back 107

asymmetry of the brain

Front 108

What percentage of people are righties? Of them, how many are life-language dominant? What percentage lefties? How many are left-language dominant? What about the others?

Back 108

96% righties, 90% of righties left-language dominant. of 10% lefties, 70% left-language dominant. 15% mixed, 15% right-language dominant

Front 109

Which language dominance test is more reliable? What is the procedure for this test?

Back 109

Wade test: inject 1/2 brain with tranquilizer and ask patient questions; if she responds, shows which side is dominant

Front 110

Name the two language dominance tests

Back 110

Wade's test and the dichotic listening tasks

Front 111

How do people who speak sign language differ from verbal speakers in hemispheric language dominance?

Back 111

They don't! Most are left-language dominant. Impairments affect them the same way.

Front 112

Broca's work indicated what for the first time?

Back 112

language impairments/disorders are associated with a specific area of the brain

Front 113

Who is Tan?

Back 113

Frenchman who could understand well but only verbalize the syllable tan. Broca's patient.

Front 114

phonemes:
how many does the word "ship" have?

Back 114

basic speech sounds of a language
3: sh-i-p

Front 115

morphemes:
how many does "unhappily" have?

Back 115

smallest unit of language that carries meaning, like root word, prefix, or suffix
3: un happi ly

Front 116

syntax:

Back 116

grammatical structure of a language (like where adjectives go in relation to nouns)

Front 117

semantics:

Back 117

deepest level of organization in language

Front 118

Broca's area:

Back 118

area in left frontal lobe next to motor areas for mouth and tongue, thought to contain programs for speaking words

Front 119

Wernicke's area:

Back 119

area in left temporal lobe, thought to contain meaning of all words, immediately adjacent to primary auditory cortex

Front 120

Arcuate fasciculus:

Back 120

fiber tract connecting Wernicke's and Broca's areas

Front 121

Angular gyrus:

Back 121

involved in reading, connects written words with meaning, located behind Wernicke's area

Front 122

How does information travel from a heard question in the brain according do the Wernicke-Geschwind model?

Back 122

question is heard in auditory cortex, info sent to Wernicke's area, then via arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area, then to primary motor cortex

Front 123

severe language impairment, caused by head injury or stroke

Back 123

aphasia

Front 124

impaired language production disorder; name 3 characteristics

Back 124

Broca's aphasia
1. slow effortful speech
2. syntactically incorrect but with good content words
3. comprehend semantic effects of words, but because of syntax difficulties, can have trouble with simple questions

Front 125

Wernicke's aphasia characteristics:

Back 125

1. profound comprehension deficit
2. fluent but meaningless speech
3. phonemic and syntax levels are okay

Front 126

most debilitating aphasia

Back 126

global aphasia: all aspects of language function lost

Front 127

most common aphasia

Back 127

anomic aphasia: characterized by difficulty finding the right word, not associated with specific brain area

Front 128

cortical aphasia:

Back 128

arcuate fasciculus damaged, will understand you but have meaningless yet fluent speech

Front 129

golgi tendon organs

Back 129

embedded in tendons, respond to increases in muscle tension, i.e. the pull of the muscle on the tendon

Front 130

muscle spindle

Back 130

gives information about muscle length, attached to a muscle fiber

Front 131

criticism of wernicke-geschwind model

Back 131

too simplistic; people who have just broca' area removed and no surrounding area have little to no lasting effects

Front 132

supporters of wernicke-geschwind model

Back 132

damage done to broca's area that warranted surgery would have resulted in cortical rearrangement of language area

Front 133

t/f: where a lesion is located in the brain is a stronger determinant of long lasting damage than how much is removed

Back 133

false, though when more damage is done in the anterior areas of the frontal lobe, that seems to have a large impact.

Front 134

language deficiency is most pronounced with damage to the...

Back 134

anterior version of the frontal lobe

Front 135

t/f wernicke-geschwind model still used today

Back 135

false

Front 136

t/f areas of the brain dedicated to language are used exclusively for specialized processes

Back 136

false, area used for reading also responsible for short term memory

Front 137

3 components of emotions:

Back 137

cognitive (feeling or subjective conscious experience), behavioral (overt expression), physical (visceral organs reacting)

Front 138

emotion:

Back 138

particular kind of subjective feeling, real or imagined, that has high significance to the individual

Front 139

3 dimensions of emotions

Back 139

duration, intensity, and pleasantness

Front 140

crucial brain area for generating conscious experience

Back 140

frontal lobe

Front 141

damage to the ________ cortex can cause flat affect

Back 141

frontal cortex

Front 142

two brain areas involved in emotions:

Back 142

frontal lobe, amygdala

Front 143

t/f: damage to amygdala prevents someone from making fluid, properly sequenced motor movements

Back 143

false; amygdala lesion causes difficulty in reading other people's expressions, incapable of forming new fears or aversions

Front 144

list the brain structures in proper order associated with auditory fear conditioning

Back 144

natural sound processed by thalamus, sent to auditory cortex and amygdala. from amygdala to hypothalamus, causes sympathetic response. from amygdala to spinal cord, causes behavioral response

Front 145

what structure causes people to fear a neutral sound after auditory fear conditioning?

Back 145

the AMYGDALA, ya turkey!

Front 146

what caused the theory that emotions are on the right side of the brain?

Back 146

lateralization of expressions (smiles start on the left side of the face!)

Front 147

t/f the more complex a behavior, the more variability you will find among brain scans

Back 147

true

Front 148

James-Lange theory:

Back 148

object is perceived, physiological response happens, people interpret this response by associating an emotion with it

Front 149

common sense theory:

Back 149

object perceived, emotional response, physiological response follows

Front 150

Cannon-Bard theory:

Back 150

stimuli perceived, physiological and emotional response happen simultaneously

Front 151

Modern theory of emotion:

Back 151

stimuli, physiological response, and emotional response all influence each other equally

Front 152

What was the Schacter and Singer experiment?

Back 152

group all given shot of epinephrin, half told to expect feelings of agitation. put in room with rude person; those told about agitation were not bothered by the rude person because they had something to attribute their emotional response to

Front 153

limbic system:

Back 153

ring of nuclei and tracts around the thalamus

Front 154

what did pepez theorize in 1937

Back 154

that limbic system was the circuitry of emotion; wrong because it's not just one circuitry

Front 155

when your brain perceives an event that can be interpreted emotionally, it activates these two things:

Back 155

sympathetic nervous system (fight vs flight response), HPA (hypothalamus pituitary adrenal cortex axis)

Front 156

what is HPA?

Back 156

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal cortex axis that releases glucocorticoids

Front 157

most common glucocorticoid in the body:

Back 157

cortisol

Front 158

6 universal facial expressions are: ____________ and were theorized by _________ to have come ______ language development

Back 158

surprise, anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness
Darwin
before to give us signaling tools of communication

Front 159

theory that expression formation influence emotions is called:

Back 159

facial feedback hypothesis

Front 160

Duchenne smile and muscle groups:

Back 160

genuinely happy smile, involved obicularis occuli and zyomaticus major

Front 161

obicularis occuli

Back 161

muscles in duchenne smile, involuntary movement

Front 162

zyomatic occuli

Back 162

muscles in duchenne smile with voluntary control

Front 163

facial electromyography studies

Back 163

tiny little micromovements in face that cannot be controlled give away a poker face if you can perceive them.