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202 Cards in this Set
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Behavioral Genetics
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The scientific study of how genotype interacts with environment to determine behavioral attributes such as intelligence, personality, and mental health
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Heritability
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The amount of variability in a trait that is attributable to factors of genetic inhereitance
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Selective Breeding Experiment
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A method of studying genetic influences by determining whether traits can be bred in animals through selective mating
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Kinship
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The extent to which two individuals have genes in common
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Twin Design
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Study in which sets of twins that differ in zygosity (kinship) are compared to determine the heritability of an attribute
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Adoption Design
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Study in which adoptees are compared with their biological relatives to estimate the heritability of an attribute or attributes
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Concordance Rate
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The percentage of cases in which a particular attribute is present for one member of a twin pair if it is present for the other
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Heritability Coefficient
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A numerical estimate, ranging from .00 to +1.00, of the amount of variation in an attribute that is due to hereditary factors
H= (r identical twins - r fraternal twins) x 2 |
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Nonshared Environmental Influence (NSE)
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An environmental influence that people living together do not share that should make these individuals different from one another
NSE= 1,00- r(identical twins reared together) |
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Shared Environmental Influence (SE)
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An environmental influence that people living together share that should make these individuals similar to one another
SE= 1.00- (H+NSE) |
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Introversion/Extroversion
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The opposite poles of a personality dimension: the first type are shy, anxious around others, and then to withdraw from social situations; the second are highly sociable and enjoy being with others
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Empathic Concern
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A measure of the extent to which an individual recognizes the needs of others and is concerned about their welfare
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Parent Effects Model
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Model of family influences in which parents (particularly mothers) are believed to influence their children rather than vice versa
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Child Effects Model
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Model of family influences in which children are believed to influence their parents rather than vice versa
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Transactional Model
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Model of family influences in which parents and child are believed to influence each other reciprocally
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Schizophrenia
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A serious form of mental illness characterized by disturbances in logical thinking, emotional expression, and interpersonal behavior
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Bipolar Disorder
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A psychological disorder characterized by extreme fluctuations in mood
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Neurotic Disorder
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An irrational pattern of thinking or behavior that a person may use to contend with stress or to avoid anxiety
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Canalization
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Genetic restriction of phenotype to a small number of developmental outcomes; when this occurs to an attribute, it becomes one for which genes channel development along predetermined pathways, so the environment has little effect on the phenotype that emerges
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Range-of-Reaction Principle
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The idea that genotype sets limits on the range of possible phenotypes that a person might display in response to different environments
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Passive Genotype/Environment Correlations
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The notion that the rearing environments that biological parents provide are influenced by the parents' own genes, and hence are correlated with the child's own genotype
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Evocative Genotype/Environment Correlations
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The notion that our heritable attributes affect others' behavior toward us and thus influence the social environment in which development takes places
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Active Genotype/Environment Correlations
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The notion that our genotypes affect the types of environments that we prefer and seek out
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Prenatal Development
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Development that occurs between the moment of conception and the beginning of the birth process
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Period of the Zygote
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First phase of prenatal development, lasting from conception until the developing organism becomes firmly attached to the wall of the uterus
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Period of the Embryo
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Second phase of prenatal development, lasting from the third to eighth prenatal week, during which the major organs and anatomical structures take shape
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Period of the Fetus
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Third phase of prenatal development, lasting from the ninth prenatal week until birth; during this period all major organ systems begin to function and the fetus grows rapidly
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Blastocyst
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The name given to the ball of cells formed when the fertilized egg begins to divide
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Embryo
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Name given to the prenatal organism from the third to the eighth week after conception
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Implantation
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The burrowing of the blastocyst into the lining of the uterus
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Amnion
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A watertight membrane that surrounds the developing embryo, serving to regulate its temperature and to cushion against injuries
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Chorion
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A membrane that becomes attached to the uterine tissues to gather nourishment for the embryo
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Placenta
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An organ, formed from the lining of the uterus and the chorion, that provides for respiration and nourishment of the unborn child and the elimination of its metabolic wastes
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Umbilical Cord
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A soft tube containing blood vessels that connects the embryo to the placenta
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Neural Tube
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The primitive spinal cord that develops from the ectoderm and becomes the central nervous system
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Fetus
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Name given to the prenatal organism from the ninth week of pregnancy until birth
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Vernix
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White, cheesy substance that covers the fetus to protect the skin from chapping
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Lanugo
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Fine hair covering the fetus' body that helps vernix stick to the skin
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Age of Viability
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A point between the 22nd and 28th prenatal weeks when survival outside the uterus is possible
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Teratogens
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External agents such as viruses, drugs, chemicals, and radiation that can harm a developing embryo or fetus
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Sensitive Period
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A period during which an organism is most susceptible to certain environmental influences; outside this period, the same environmental influences must be much stronger to produce comparable effects
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Rubella (German Measles)
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A disease that has little effect on a pregnant woman but may cause a number of serious birth defects in developing organisms who are exposed in the first 3 to 4 months of pregnancy
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Toxoplasmosis
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Disease caused by a parasite found in raw meat and cat feces; can cause birth defects if transmitted to an embryo in the first trimester and miscarriage later in pregnancy
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Syphilis
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A common sexually transmitted disease that may cross the placental barrier in the middle and later stages of pregnancy, causing miscarriages or serious birth defects
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Genital Herpes
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A sexually transmitted disease that can infect infants at birth, causing blindness, brain damage, or even death
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Cesarean Delivery
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Surgical delivery of a baby through an incision made in the pregnant woman's abdomen and uterus
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Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
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A viral disease that can be transmitted from a mother to her fetus or neonate and that results in a weakening of the body's immune system and, ultimately, death
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Thalidomide
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A mild tranquilizer that, taken early in pregnancy, can produce a variety of malformations of the limbs, eyes, ears, and heart
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Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
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A synthetic hormone, formerly prescribed to prevent miscarriage, that can produce cervical cancer in female offspring and genital-tract abnormalities in males
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
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A group of serious congenital problems commonly observed in the offspring of mothers who abuse alcohol during pregnancy
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Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)
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A group of mild congenital problems that are sometimes observed in children of mothers who drink sparingly to moderately during pregnancy
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Cleft Lip
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A congenital disorder in which the upper lip has a vertical (or pair of vertical) openings or grooves
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Cleft Palate
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A congenital disorder in which the roof of the mouth does not close properly during embryonic development, resulting in an opening or groove in the roof of the mouth
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Folic Acid
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B-complex vitamin that helps to prevent defects of the central nervous system
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Spina Bifida
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A bulging of the spinal cord through a gap in the spinal column
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Anencephaly
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A birth defect in which the brain and neural tube fail to develop (or develop incompletely) and the skull does not close
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Neonate
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A newborn infant from birth to approximately 1 month of age
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Perinatal Environment
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Refers to the environment during the time surrounding birth, before and after
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First Stage of Labor
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The period of the birth process lasting from the first regular uterine contractions until the cervix is fully dilated
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Second Stage of Labor
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The period of the birth process during which the fetus moves through the birth canal and emerges from the mother's body (also called the delivery)
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Third Stage of Labor
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Expulsion of the placenta (afterbirth)
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Apgar Test
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A quick assessment of the newborn's heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, and reflexes that is used to gauge perinatal stress and to determine whether a neonate requires immediate medical assistance
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Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (NBAS)
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A test that assesses a neonate's neurological integrity and responsiveness to environmental stimuli
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Emotional Bonding
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Term used to describe the strong, affectionate ties that parents may feel toward their infant; some theorists believe that it occurs in its strongest form shortly after birth, during a sensitive period
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Natural (Prepared) Childbirth
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A delivery in which physical and psychological preparations for the birth are stressed and medical assistance in minimized
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Alternative Birth Center
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A hospital birthing room or other independent facility that provides a homelike atmosphere for childbirth but still makes medical technology available
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Postpartum Depression
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Strong feelings of sadness, resentment, and despair that may appear shortly after childbirth and can linger for months
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Engrossment
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Paternal analogue of maternal emotional bonding; term used to describe fathers' fascination with their neonates, including their desire to touch, hold, caress, and talk to the newborn baby
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Sibling Rivalry
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The spirit of competition, jealousy, and resentment that may arise between two or more siblings
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Anoxia
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A lack of sufficient oxygen to the brain; may result in neurological damage or death
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Breech Birth
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A delivery in which the fetus emerges feet first or buttocks first rather than head first
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RH Factor
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A blood protein that, when present in a fetus but not the mother, can cause the mother to produce antibodies. These antibodies may then attack the red blood cells of subsequent fetuses who have the protein in their blood
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Preterm Babies
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Infants born more than 3 weeks before their normal due dates
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Small-for-Date Babies
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Infants whose birth weight is far below normal, even when born close to their normal due dates
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
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The unexplained death of a sleeping infant who suddenly stops breathing (also called crib death)
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Preference Method
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A method used to gain information about infants' perceptual abilities by presenting two (or more) stimuli and observing which stimulus the infant prefers
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Habituation
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A decrease in one's response to a stimulus that has become familiar through repetition
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Dishabituation
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Increase in responsiveness that occurs when stimulation changes
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Evoked Potential
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A change in patterning of the brain waves which indicates that an individual detects (senses) a stimulus
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High-Amplitude Sucking Method
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A method of assessing infants' perceptual capabilities that capitalizes on the ability of infants to make interesting events last by varying the rate at which they suck on a specific pacifier
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Phonemes
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Smallest meaningful sound units that make up a spoken language
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Otitis Media
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Common bacterial infection of the middle ear that produces mild to moderate hearing loss
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Visual Acuity
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A person's ability to see small objects and fine detail
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Visual Contrast
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The amount of light/dark transition in a visual stimulus
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Size Constancy
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The tendency to perceive an object as the same size from different distances despite changes in the size of its retinal image
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Visual Cliff
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An elevated platform that creates an illusion of depth, used to test the depth perception of infants
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Intermodal Perception
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The ability to use one sensory modality to identify a stimulus or pattern of stimuli that is already familiar through another modality
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Perceptual Learning
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Changes in one's ability to extract information from sensory stimulation that occur as a result of experience
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Learning
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A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from one's experiences or practice
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Classical Conditioning
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A type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a meaningful non-neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response originally made by the non-neutral stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a particular response after being paired with a UCS that always elicits the response
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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A learned response to a stimulus that was not originally capable of producing the response
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
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A stimulus that elicits a particular response without any prior learning
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Operant Conditioning
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A form of learning in which freely emitted acts become either more or less probable depending on the consequences they produce
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Observational Learning
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Learning that results from observing the behavior of others
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Encoding
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The process by which external stimulation is converted to a mental representation
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Deferred Imitation
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The ability to reproduce a modeled activity that has been witnessed at some point in the past
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Cephalocaudal Development
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A sequence of physical maturation and growth that proceeds from the head to the tail
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head (cephalic region)
tail (cuadal region) |
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Proximodistal development
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A sequence of physical maturation and growth that proceeds from the center of the body to the extremities
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the body (the proximal region)
the extremities (distal regions) |
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Skeletal Age
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A measure of physical maturation based on the child's level of skeletal development
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Brain Growth Spurt
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The period between the seventh prenatal month and 2 years of age when more than half of the child's eventual brain weight is gained
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Synapse
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The connective space (juncture) between one nerve cell (neuron) and another
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Neurons
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Nerve cells that receive and transmit neural impulses
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Glia
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Nerve cells that nourish neurons and encase them in insulating sheaths of myelin
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Synaptogenesis
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Formation of connections among neurons
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Plasticity
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Capacity for change; a developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience
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Myelinization
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The process by which neurons are enclosed in waxy myelin sheaths that will facilitate the transmission of neural impulses
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Cerebrum
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The highest brain center; includes both hemispheres of the brain and the fibers that connect them
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Corpus Callosum
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The bundle of neural fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and transmits information from one hemisphere to the other
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Cerebral Cortex
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The outer layer of the brain's cerebrum that is involved in voluntary body movements, perception, and higher intellectual functions such as learning, thinking, and speaking
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Cerebral Lateralization
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The specialization of brain functions in the left and right cerebral hemispheres
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Dynamical Systems Theory
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A theory that views motor skills as active reorganizations of previously mastered capabilities that are undertaken to find more effective ways of exploring the environment or satisfying other objectives
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Ulnar Grasp
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An early manipulatory skill in which an infant grasps objects by pressing the fingers against the palm
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Pincer grasp
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A grasp in which the thumb is used in opposition to the fingers enabling the infant to become more dexterous at lifting and fondling objects
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Bonding
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The strong affectionate ties that parents may feel toward their infant; some theorists believe that the strongest connections occur shortly after birth, during a sensitive period
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Attachment
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A close, reciprocal, emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. It differs from bonding in that it occurs between an older infant, who is capable of forming an emotional relationship, and another person; bonding is a one-way relationship that the parent feels toward the child
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Basic Emotions
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The set of emotions present at birth or emerging early in the first year that some theorists believe to be biologically programmed
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Complex Emotions
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Self-conscious or self-evaluative emotions that emerge in the second year and depend, in part, on cognitive development
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Emotional Display Rules
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Culturally defined rules specifying which emotions should or should not be expressed under which circumstances
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Emotional Self-Regulation
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Strategies for managing emotions or adjusting arousal to an appropriate level of intensity
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Social Referencing
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The use of others' emotional expressions to infer the meaning of the otherwise ambiguous situations
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Empathy
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The ability to experience the same emotions that someone else is experiencing
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Emotional Competence
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Competent emotional expressivity, competent emotional knowledge, and competent emotional regulation
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Competent Emotional Expressivity
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Frequent expressions of more positive emotions and relatively infrequent displays of negative ones
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Competent Emotional Knowledge
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The ability to correctly identify other people's feelings and the factors responsible for those emotions
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Competent Emotional Regulation
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The ability to adjust one's experience and expression of emotional arousal to an appropriate level of intensity to successfully achieve one's goals
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Social Competence
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The ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while continuing to maintain positive relationships with others
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Temperament
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A person's characteristic modes of responding emotionally and behaviorally to environmental events, including such attributes as activity level, irritability, fearfulness, and sociability
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Behavioral Inhibition
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A temperamental attribute reflecting one's tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations
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Easy Temperament
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Temperamental profile in which the child quickly establishes regular routines, is generally good natured, and adapts easily to novelty
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Difficult Temperament
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Temperamental profile in which the child is irregular in daily routines and adapts slowly to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely
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Slow-to-Warm-Up Temperament
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Temperamental profile in which the child is inactive and moody and displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences
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"Goodness-of-Fit" Model
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Tomas and Chess' notion that development is likely to be optimized when parents' child-rearing practices are sensitively adapted to the child's temperamental characteristics
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Synchronized Routines
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Generally harmonious interactions between two persons in which participants adjust their behavior in response to the partner's feelings and behaviors
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Asocial Phase (of Attachment)
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Approximately the first 6 weeks of life, in which infants respond in an equally favorable way to interesting social and nonsocial stimuli
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Phase of Indiscriminate Attachments
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Period between 6 weeks and 6 to 7 months of age in which infants prefer social to nonsocial stimulation and are likely to protest whenever any adult puts them down or leaves them alone
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Phase of Specific Attachment
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The period between 7 and 9 months of age when infants are attached to one close companion (usually the mother)
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Secure Base
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Use of a caregiver as a base from which to explore the environment and to which to return for emotional support
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Phase of Multiple Attachments
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Period when infants are forming attachments to companions other than their primary attachment object
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Secondary Reinforcer
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An initially neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcement value by virtue of its repeated association with other reinforcing stimuli
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Imprinting
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An innate or instinctual form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attached to moving objects (usually their mothers)
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Preadapted Characteristic
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An attribute that is a product of evolution and serves some function that increases the chances of survival for the individual and the species
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Kewpie Doll Effect
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The notion that infant-like facial features are perceived as cute and lovable and elicit favorable responses from others
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Stranger Anxiety
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A wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when approached by any unfamiliar person
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Separation Anxiety
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A wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when separated from the person(s) to whom they are attached
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Strange Situation
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A series of eight separation and reunion episodes to which infants are exposed in order to determine the quality of their attachments
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Secure Attachment
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An infant-caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment
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Resistant Attachment
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An insecure infant-caregiver bond, characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after separation
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Avoidant Attachment
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An insecure infant-caregiver bond, characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver
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Disorganized/ Disoriented Attachment
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An insecure infant-caregiver bond, characterized by the infant's dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver
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Attachment Q-Set (AQS)
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Alternative method of assessing attachment security that is based on observations of the child's attachment-related behaviors at home; can be used with infants, toddlers, and preschool children
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Amae
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Japanese concept; refers to an infant's feeling of total dependence on his or her mother and the presumption of mother's love and indulgence
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Caregiving Hypothesis
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Ainsworth's notion that the type of attachment that an infant develops with a particular caregiver depends primarily on the kind of caregiving he or she has received from that person
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Temperament Hypothesis
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Kagan's view that the Strange Situation measures individual differences in infants' temperaments rather than the quality of their attachments
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Internal Working Models
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Cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships that infants construct from their interactions with caregivers
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Self
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The combination of physical and psychological attributes that is unique to each individual
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Social Cognition
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Thinking people display about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behavior of themselves and other people
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Proprioceptive Feedback
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Sensory information from the muscles, tendons, and joints that helps one to locate the position of one's body or body parts in space
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Personal Agency
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Recognition that one can be the cause of an event
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Self-Concept
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One's perception of one's unique attributes or traits
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Self-Recognition
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The ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or a photograph
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Present Self
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Early self-representation in which 2- and 3- year olds recognize current representations of self but are unaware that past self-representations or self-relevant events have implications for the present
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Extended Self
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More mature self-representation, emerging between ages 3.5 and 5 years, in which children are able to integrate past, current, and unknown future self-representations into a notion of a "self" that endures over time
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Categorical Self
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A person's classification of the self along socially significant dimensions such as age and sex
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False Self-behavior
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Acting in ways that do not reflect one's true self or the "true me"
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Individualistic Society
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Society that values personalism and individual accomplishments, which often take precedence over group goals. These societies tend to emphasize ways in which each person differs from another
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Collectivist (or Communal) Society
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Society that values cooperative interdependence, social harmony, and adherence to group norms. These societies generally hold that the group's well-being is more important than that of the individual
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Self-Esteem
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One's evaluation of one's worth as a person based on an assessment of the qualities that make up the self concept
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Relational Self-Worth
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Feelings of self-esteem within a particular relationship context (e.g., with parents, with male classmates); may differ across relationship contexts
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Social Comparison
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The process of defining and evaluating the self by comparing oneself to other people
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Achievement Motivation
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A willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment
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Mastery Motivation
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An inborn motive to explore, understand, and control one's environment
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Intrinsic Achievement Orientation
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A desire to achieve in order to satisfy one's personal needs for competence or mastery (as opposed to achieving for external incentives such as grades)
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Authoritative Parenting
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Flexible, democratic style of parenting in which warm, accepting parents provide guidance and control while allowing the child some say in deciding how best to meet challenges and obligations
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Achievement Attributions
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Causal explanations that one provides for his or her successes and failures
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Achievement Expectancies
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How well (or poorly) one expects to perform should he or she try to achieve a particular objective
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Incremental View of Ability
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Belief that one's ability can be improved through increased effort and practice
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Entity View of ability
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Belief tat one's ability is a highly stable trait that is not influenced much by effort or practice
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Mastery Orientation
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A tendency to persist at challenging tasks because of a belief that one has high ability and/or that earlier failures can be overcome by trying harder
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Learned-Helplessness orientation
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A tendency to give up or to stop trying after failing because these failures have been attributed to a lack of ability that one can do little about
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Attribution Retraining
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Therapeutic intervention in which helpless children are persuaded to attribute failures to their lack of effort rather than a lack of ability
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Person Praise
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Praise focusing on desirable personality traits such as intelligence; this praise fosters performance goals in achievement contexts
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Performance Goal
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State of affairs in which one's primary objective in an achievement context is to display one's competencies (or to avoid looking incompetent)
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Process-Oriented Praise
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Praise of effort expended to formulate good ideas and effective problem-solving strategies; this praise fosters learning goals in achievement contexts
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Learning Goal
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State of affairs in which one's primary objective in an achievement context is to increase one's skills or abilities
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Identity
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A mature self-definition; a sense of who one is, where one is going in life, and how one fits into society
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Identity Crisis
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Erikson's term for the uncertainty and discomfort that adolescents experience when they become confused about their present and future roles in life
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Identity Diffusion
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Identity status characterizing individuals who are not questioning who they are and have not yet committed themselves to an identity
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Identity Foreclosure
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Identity status characterizing individuals who have prematurely committed themselves to occupations or ideologies without really thinking about these commitments
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Identity Moratorium
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Identity status characterizing individuals who are currently experiencing an identity crisis and are actively exploring occupational and ideological positions in which to invest themselves
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Identity Achievement
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Identity status characterizing individuals who have carefully considered identity issues and have made firm commitments to an occupation and ideologies
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Behavioral Comparisons Phase
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The tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting their overt behaviors
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Psychological Constructs Phase
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Tendency to base one's impressions of others on the stable traits these individuals are presumed to have
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Psychological Comparisons Phase
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Tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting these individuals on abstract psychological dimensions
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Role Taking
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The ability to assume another person's perspective and understand his or her thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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Ectoderm (the nervous system, skin, and hair)
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The outer layer of the embryonic disk
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Mesoderm (muscle, bones, and circulatory system)
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The middle layer of the embryonic disk
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Endoderm (the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and other vital organs such as the pancreas and liver)
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The inner layer of the embryonic disk
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Optic Flow
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The perceived movement of objects in the visual field as well as the perceived movements of the foreground and background in which the objects are embedded
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Ectopic Pregnancy
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When a fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus in the fallopian tube
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Timing is everything
Not all embryos/fetuses are affected similarly Dose-Response Relationship A single T can influence multiple outcomes The negative effects might not show up until long after prenatal exposure |
Principles of Teratogens
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Interburst Interval (IBI)
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The latency or gap between sucks in the high-amplitude sucking procedure
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