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165 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is botony?
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the study of plants
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How are snowdrops important for botony? What are other plants that help like snowdrops?
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-it's important for alzeimer's
-produces an enzyme "galanthimine" -helps alzeimer's patients maintain proper levels of acetylcholine -vincamine" from Rosey periwinkle -improves blood flow |
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What is the scary side of botony?
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-Recin (caster oil plant)
-potential biological warfare agent -symptoms may not be able to be traced |
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What is the plant and nature aspect of botony?
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-photosynthesis is the most important process
-get energy from sun -we wouldn't be here if plants didn;'t have photosynthesis -aslo org. conduct chemosynthesis (get energy from chemicals) -similar to photosynthesis but doesn't benefit us |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants in food?
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-good for nutrients and survivial of our species
-crops |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants in agriculture?
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-first started in china (rice, peaches, etc.)
-second was fertile cresant (iran, iraq, etc) |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants in clothing?
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-bamboo towels
-hemp clothing fropm marijuana stalks |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants in oils?
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caster oil
-can alter moods if smelled -comes from plants that were fossilized and compressed -non-reusable |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants in paper?
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-from trees and grass
-elephant poo paper -elephant eats grass and fibers are taken from feces |
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What are are the economic aspects of plants for rubber?
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for airplanes: rubber needs to be from rubber tree (strongest)
-extract from sap in tree -Dr. Shultz: made sure Africa provided rubber to US during World war II |
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what is economically important about plants?
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-food
-agriculture -building -clothing -oils -paper -rubber -medicinal |
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How are plants economically important for medicines?
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-25% of prescription drugs are from plants
-60% of O-T-C drugs contain natural products |
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Where does aspirin (salicyclic acid) come from?
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-white birch and willow (fever reducing)
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Where does vincristine/vinblastine come from?
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-rosy periwinkle (for childhood leukemia)
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where does morphine come from?
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-poppies (pain killer)
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Where does digitalis/digitoxin come from?
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-foxglove (for heart disease)
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Where does taxol come from?
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-pacific yue (used to treat breast cancer anovarian cancer
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Where does THC come from?
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-marijuana plant (relieves nausea from chemotherapy)
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How is botony esthetic and important for recreation?
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-sociological perspective
-gardening -music |
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What is the sociological aspect of botony?
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-humans are gentically comfortable with nature
biophilia:love for nature |
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What music is important for botony? (choose 2) (what plant and location)
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-native bamboo: panpipes and flutes (peru ecuador, Bolivia)
-reed:Arundo Donax: clairnet/oboe mouthpieces (South france) -rosewood: acoustic and electgric guitars (Africa; South America) |
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How is agave plant historically important?
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located in mexico
-leaves contian juice for topical antibacterial medicine -fermented juice makes tequila -fiber is for clothing/rope -developing flower stalk is for food |
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How is the baobab tree historically important for societal needs?
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-located in africa savannah
-fruit contains vitamin C -leaves have topical anitbacterial medication -trunk contains fibers for clothing/rope |
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What 7 crops constitute 75% of all present day food? (know 5 of 7)
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-wheat
-rice -potatos -barley -sweet potato -cassava -corn |
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Other than the 7 important crops, what is also important for present day food?
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-soybean (paints, plastics, oils, and adhesives)
-oats -sugar cane -coffee -chocolate -teas (from many plants) -peanuts |
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What are present day problems with plants and society? How can botony help?
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-relate to -over-population
-2/3 of world's population has poverty and/or hunger -only 10% live in affluence -if you understand native plants that grow in the area, then we can grow them better |
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What does fresh water pollution have to do with plants? How can botony help?
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-if not clean, then plants have problems growing
-maintain wetlands -have ability to hold water and release it carefully and slowly -restores hydrologic cycle |
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What does loss of biological diversity have to do with botany?
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-human induced
-not just tropics, but also in tmeperate zone (33% may go extinct in 50 years) -80000 native species in US, may lose 26000 -tropical deforestation: size of florida each year |
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What does global warmign have to do with botany? How will botany help?
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-real and amonh us
-will affect distribution and abundance of plants (among many other things) -botony can predict what will happen to crops in area of climate change -can affect animal abundance in area |
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What does acid precipitation have to do with botany? How cna botany help?
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-air pollution
-sulfuric acid -nitric acid -motre in europe than US -unhealthy environment for plants -botony can research how plants are affected by pollution and prevent distribution |
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What is plant anatomy/cytology?
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-study of cells and cell structures within plants
-ex: xylem and phloem |
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What is whole plant morphology?
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-form and function of plants
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What is plant physiology?
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-how the plant functions
-photosynthesis, cellular aerobic respiration, how plant grows and responds to hormones |
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What is plant taxonomy and systematics?
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-naming and classification of plants
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What is paleobotany?
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-plant distribution and communities in ancient times
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What is plant genetics?
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-hereditary and variation of plants
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What is plant ecoology?
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-linking plants to the environment
-don't walk on dunes |
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What is plant conservation?
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-preventing extinction of plants
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What is economic botany?
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-use of plants for money generating purposes
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What is ethnobotany?
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-study of medicinal plants used by native people
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Observation of the bark of cork oak leading to the concept of the cell is an example of what?
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-Why we should care about botony non-medicinally
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What is Mandell's studies of pea inhertiance established the principles of genetics an example of?
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Why we should care about botony non-meicinally
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What is the undertsanding of the tobacco mosaic virus leading to the recognition of viruses as agents of disease and the principles of virolgy an example of?
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-why we should care about botoyn non-medicinally
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What is the study of growth responses of canary grass to light allowing for the discovery of hormones and hormone funtion an example of?
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-why we should care about botony non-medicinally
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What is the study of unusual genetic patterns in corn allowing the recogition of "jumping genes" and transposons a example of?
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-Why we should care about botony non-medicinally
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What is tissue culture founded bya person studying the growth of potato pieces in defined media an example of?
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-why we should care about botony non-medicinally
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What are steroids an example of? Where do they come from? Significance?
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-why care about botony medicinally
-comes from yam tubers (grown in mexico) -provides steroids for one months worth of "the pill" |
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What is podopyllin an example of? where does it come from? significance?
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-why care about botony medicinally
-comes from the Mayapple -treat brain tumors |
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What is quinine an example of? Where does it come from? significance?
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-why care about botony medicinally
-from cinchona tree - used to treat malaria and flavor tonic water |
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What is ephedrine an example of? Where does it come from? siginificance?
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why care about botony medicinally
-from gymnosperm shrub (Ephedra) -relieves allergic reactions |
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What is taxol an example of? Where is it from? significance?
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-from pacific yew
why care about botony medicinally -used in the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer |
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What is the function of roots?
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-anchor plants down
-store sugars for plant -water and minerals get dissolved together and absorbed int he root -conduction of water from root to stem -growth and increases biomass, imporving absorption of water |
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What is the function of stems?
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-stores sugars and carbs
-support for plant -continue conduction of water from roots and sugar from leaves to rest of plant -any stem that is green can photosynthesize -stem can increase in girth and length (growth and biomass) |
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What are examples of modifed roots?
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-carrots, beets, and sweet potatos
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What are examples of modifed stems?
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-white potato, gladiolus, and daffodil
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What is the function of leaves?
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-make sugar by photosynthesis
-transport sugars to stem |
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What are simple tissues? Examples in plants?
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-one cell type only
-schelerenchyma -parenchyma -collenchyma -secretory |
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What are complex tissues? Examples in plants?
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-more than one cell tissue type
-xylem -phloem -epidermis -periderm -bark |
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What is the xylem comprised of?
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-parenchyma
-schelerenchyma -vessel elements -tracheids |
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What is the phloem comprised of?
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-parenchyma
-shclerenchyma -sieve cells (tube elem.) -companion cells |
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What is the epidermis comprised of? function?
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-protect
-parenchyma -guard cells (form stomata) -specilized cells (trichomes) |
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What is the periderm made of?
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"outer bark" for protection
2nd deg growth |
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What is "bark" made of?
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-inner barka nd outer bark (periderm)
-for protection -2nd degree growth |
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What is the apical meristem comprised of?
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-protoderm
-procambium -ground |
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What is the protoderm?
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-in apical meristem
-location in first skin, outermost layer -gives rise to epidermis |
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What is the procamnium?
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-in apical meristem
-location towards interior -gives rise to primary xylem and primary phloem (goes up, nmot the side) |
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What is the ground?
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-in apical meristem
-background cells -all other cells other than protderm and procambium -gives rise to parenchyma, collenchyma, and schlermachyma |
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What are interesting facts about the apical meristem?
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-cell division is diurnal pattern
-divide every 12 hours -"tissue culture" from apical meristems (grow plant in test tube) |
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What is the root cap? Location? apporx. depth? function?
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-root cap lasts less than a week. It;'s constantly beign egnerated, contiously replaced by apical meristem cells
-located at very tip of root where it hits soil -about 20 cells -protects meristemic cells |
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What is the location of the apical meristem? fuinction? apoorx. depth? cell char.?
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-directly above root cap
-gives rise to every other cell type -10-20 cells deep -living witha nucleus, relativly box shaped (cuboidal), flexible cell walls |
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Where is the zone of elongation? Depth? Function? cell char.?
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-above apical meristem and below zone of maturation
-deeper than apical meristem, 25-100 cells deep -allows apical meristem to give rise to primary meristem tissues -cells have flexible and elongatd cell walls living with nucleus, vacuoles combine to become primary vacuoles |
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What are the other meristems?
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-marginal meristem
-apical meristem -lateral meristem -intercalary meristem -basal meristem |
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what is the vascular cambium?
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-gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem
-active for entire life of tree/shrub -produces secondary xylem (inside of V.C) -produces secondary phloem |
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What is the secondary xylem?
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-carries water/min up
-relativly large cells -sapwood vs hardwood |
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What is the difference in the secondary xylem of sapwood and hardwood?
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-sapwood has active system
-hardwood has dead system, center of tree, used for furniture, hold metabolic wastes |
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What is the secodnary phloem?
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-carries sugars/H20 down
-outside of V.C -relatively small cells -eventually becomes inner bark |
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What is the cork cambium?
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-gives rise to outer periderm'
-porduces 3 cell layers -entire bark includes everything outside of vascular cambium (periderm) |
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What are is the function of lenticels? Where is it located?
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-for gas exchange
-abundant in cherry tree periderm |
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What do the rings of the tree? what do they tell you?
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-secondary xylem
-tell you age of tree |
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What are softwoods?
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-low density wood
-typically coniferous -gymnosperm- can push bark in -ex: most pines |
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What are hardwoods?
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-more dense wood (dead cells)
-typically flowering trees -woody angiosperms -ex. cherry tree, dogwood |
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What is the softest wood?
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Balsa
-angiosperm |
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What are corks for wine from?
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-the periderm of the "cork oak"
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What are the two oldest trees?
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-Bristlecone pine: 4900 yrs
-Giant redwoods: 3000 years |
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What is the specific use of the Persimmon wood (diospyros virginiana)?
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-golf-club heads
-boxes and crates -handles |
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What are redwoods wood used for?
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-building construction of all sorts
-ship and boat building - garden furniture - shingles and shakes - caskets and coffins |
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What are specific uses of the eastern hemlock?
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-pulpwoo
-general construction -boxes and crates -sash and doors -kitchen cabients -tannins used in tanning leather |
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What is the sugar maple wood specifically used for?
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-veneer
-railroad ties -fuel wood -furniture -flooring (inclduing bowling ally's, dance floors etc.) -toys and woodenware -musical; instruments |
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What is the yellow birch wood specifically used for?
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-veneer
-furniture -toys and woodenware -musical instruments -toothpicks -boxes and baskets |
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What is sugar pine wood specifically used for?
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-boxes and crates
-sash, doors, and other millwork -signs -piano keys and organ pipes |
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What are examples of non-meristemic tissues?
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-parenchyma
-collenchyma -schelerenchyma -secretory |
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What is the background info on parenchyma tissue?
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-most abundant "simple tissue"
-found in both xylem and phloem -ind cells may live 10-20 years |
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what is the shape of parenchyma tissue?
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-variable, cuboidal, pulyhedral, oval, elongated
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What are the morphological characteristsics of parenchyma tissue?
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-alive at maturity
-retains all organelles -has thin primary cell wall (occasinally secondary C.W.)(stregthened) -air spaces b/t cells -large vacuole |
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Where is parenchyma tissue located in stem and roots?
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-in most of cortex
-much of pith -epidermis -xylem/phloem |
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Where is parenchyma tissue located in leaves?
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-epidermis
-cholrechyma cells in "pailisade" and "spongy" mesophyll |
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Where is parenchyma found in fruits?
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-most of the edible part
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Where parenchyma located in secondary tissues?
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-in secondary xylem and phloem
-"ray cells" connect vasc. -tisues trasnport laterally -periderm is mostly parenchyma cells |
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What is the function of parenchyma?
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-storage for food (fruit) and metabolites (in storage vac.)
-protection using suberinized epidermis/periderm and trichomes -can regenerate (mitose) -uses vegatative reproduction -uses photosynthesis -conducts cellular aeroobic respiration (mitochondria) -conducts protein synthesis -conducts secretion -transports hormones (protoplasm) -conducts gas exchange-using guard cells |
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What is collenchyma tissues? shape?
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-often discrete bands or continuous cynlider in stems or petioles
-shape is elongated |
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What are morphological characteristics of collenchyme tissues?
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-primary cell wall onlky unevenly thickened with pectin (stong, flexible)
-no air spaces b/t cells -mature: living -retains all organelles (not chloroplast) -large vacuole |
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Where is collenchyma located in stem/petrioles? In leaves?
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-directly beneath epidermis (in discrete bundles)
-bordering veins |
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What is the function of collenchyma?
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add to card
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What is scherlemchyma tissue composed of?
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-scherlenchyma fibers and schlerids
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What is the shape of schlerenchyma fibers? location?
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-very elongated, tapered
-located in the stem and leaves of cortex, surrounding vasc. bundles, near epidermis,a nd leaves of monocots |
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What are the morphological characteristics of schlerenchyma fibers?
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-cell wall
-no air spaces b/t cells -usually, not always dead at maturity -very small lumen left after protoplasm dies |
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What is the function of schlerenchyma?
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-dead cells for support
-living cells for storage |
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What is schlerenchyma important for?
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-textile industry for last 1000 years
-ex: linin: flax cotton: cotton -hemp and jute fibers: twine |
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What is the shape of scherlids? Where is it located? Morphological characteristics? functions?
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-shape is irregular
-located in fruit, seed, shell, pit -has cell wall: both degrees -usually dead at maturity -function is to stregthen and scaffolding upon other shclerenchyma cells |
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What is the function of secretory cells? shape? location? Morphological characteristics?
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-to release hormones
-shape is variable (can be elongated or odd shaped) -located in nectaries in flowering plants, resin canals in conifers, and leaf surface in carnivorous plants -alive at maturity -secretes nectars, digestive enzymes, muciliage, resin, and hormones |
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What does the xylem do? What is it comprised of?
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-function is to transport minerals and water up and laterally
-comprised of vessel elements, tracheids, shclerenchyma fibers, and parenchyma |
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What are the vessel elements of xylem?
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-most important cell in conduction
-most efficient because of wide dieamter and lots of perforations at end walls -has primary adn secondary cell wall -dead at maturity |
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What are tracheids of xylem?
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-also important in conduction
-less efficient because narrower and fewer perforations -has priamry and secondary cell wall -dead at maturity |
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What are schlerenchyma fibers of xylem?
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-outer ring of xylem
-structural support/storage |
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What are parenchyma cells of xylem?
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-surrounds xylem
-structural support and protection |
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What is the phloem of vascular tissue? What is it comprised of?
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Brings nutrients from leaves to rest of plant
-comprised of sieve cells/sieve tube elements, companion cells, schlerenchyma fibers, and parenchyma cells |
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What are sieve cells/tube elements of the phloem?
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-transport/deliver sugars
-shape is elongated -primary cell wall only -alive at maturity, but A-nucleated (require companion cells) |
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What are companion cells of phloem?
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-specilized parenchymal
-regulates loading/unloading of sugars into/out of sieve cells -primary cell wall only -alive at maturity |
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What is a monocot stem? examples?
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-vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
-xylem on the inside of the vascular bundle -phloem on the outside -no woody monocots (no secondary growth) -grasses, lilies, bamboo, tulip |
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What are dicot stems? Examples?
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-vascualr bundle is of a ring arrangment
-xylem is on the inside of the vascular bed -phloem on the outside -includes woody dicots (shrubs/trees) -geraniums, daisies, shurbs, and trees |
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What is the chemical equation of photosyntheis? What is the organelle involved? Cell layers?
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-6H2O +6CO2<--> C6H12O6 +6O2
-chloroplast -in leaf: 1 degree palisade mesophyll and 2nd degree spongy mesophyll -both modified cells |
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What's within a chloroplast?
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-stroma: site of light independent rxn/ carbon fixation
-occurs in matrix, makes glucose Thylakoid: site of light dpendent reation (thylakoid stack grana) stroma thylakoids: connect one grana to another also has DNA, RNA, ribosomes (makes more clhoroplast molecules and proteins |
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Wher does photosynthesis occur in prokaryotes, esp photosynthetic eubacteria?
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-plasma membrane
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What are the different pigments? What do leaves absorb?
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violet- 400-short
blue- 430 green- 550 yellow- 575 orange- 600 red- 680-700-long -leaves commonly absorb 80% of visible light |
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What is chlorophyll A? What colors do they absorb? Reflect?
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-Mg center of prophyrin ring
-long hydrocarbon chain with methyl group -absorb violet and blue most, also red reflects green and yellow |
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What is significant about chlorophyll A?
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-75% of chlorophyll
-2 extremely important clh A molecules for the center of "photosyntheis" in light reations -only pigments that excitr e- (in p.s) |
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What is chlorophyll B? What does it absorb?What does it reflect?
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-25% of chlorophyll
-Mg in center of prophryin ring and long hydrocarbon chain with aldehyde group -blue alot, some red -yellow and green -antennial.aceesory pigments |
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What are carotenoids? what are the 2 classes of carotenoids?
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-lipids (long hydrocarbon chain polymers)
-carotenes -xanthophylls |
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What do carotenes absorb? Reflect? Function?
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-violet and blue
-red, orange, yellow, some green -antioxidants, antennal, precursor to vitamin A |
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What do xanthophylls absorb? reflect? function?
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-violet to blue, some green
-yellow -antennal |
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What do anthrocyanins absorb? reflect? function?
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-yellows
-red/purple/blue -antennal |
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What is the absorption spectrum?
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-all the pigments that are absorbed
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What is the action spectrum?
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-sum of all pigments absorption spectra
-all wavelengths used by plants during photsynthesis |
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What is the photphosphorylation rxn of light dependent reactions?
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-light is used to add a phosphate to ADP->ATP
-occurs during 1st photosynthesis (proton pump established-> ATP produced) -photolysis then occurs -NADP +H+ +e-->NADPH |
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What is photolysis?
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-H20 gets split into 2 H and 2e- and 1/2 O2 or 2H20-> 4H +4e- + O2
-splitting water gives rise to oxygen |
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What does non-cyclic mean in photophosphorylation?
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-that e- will not be cycled and therefore are passed along to the next step (carbon fixation)
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What is light dependent hill reaction photolysis? location? What gets produced?
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-splitting of H2O
-located in thylakoid -2H+ gets generated for later use by proton pump to drive the production of ATP synthesis -the 2e- gets excited and feed into PSII (redox rxn) -1/2 O2 adds to another 1/2 O2 to make atmospheric O2 |
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What is photosystem II of photosyntheis? What is generated? location? What's for later use?
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-first photsystem
-redox reaction that generates ATP (9 per H2O) -the 2 chlorophyll A molecules that form the center of the photosystem absorb P680 (which is red) -ATP -light dependent thylakoid -feeds into calvin cycle/ carbon fixation |
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What is involved in photosystem II of photosyntheis?
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pheophytin (PHEO)- intiial e- acceptor
plastoquinone (Qa and Qb)- e- transport cytochrome b/f complex -plastocyanin- final e- acceptor |
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What is Photosystem 1? location? What gets generated?
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-2nd photsystem
-forms 6 NADPH per molecule -P700 central chlorophyll A molecule -located in thylakoid -NADPH gets generated and goes into calvin cycle modified chlorophyll a is primary e- acceptor NADPH is final e- acceptor |
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What is produced during the light dependent reactions?
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2H+
2e- 1/2 O2 9ATP 6NADPH |
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What is the Z scheme?
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-zigzag scheme that shows the pathway of electron transfer from H2O to NADP+ that occurs in non-cyclic in electron flow
-electron needs to be energized twice leadign to water splitting and a proton gradient for ATP formation |
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What is the first stable product in the C3 pathway of the light independent reaction of photosynthesis?
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-3-carbon PGA
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Where do light independent reactions (carbon fixation)?
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-stroma
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What are examples of C3 plants?
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-wheat, rhy, oats, rice, "kentucky bluegrass", "creepinh bent" (spring/early summer grasses), forest plants, many mid-atlantic state plants, and many new England plants
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What occurs during stage 1 of the calvin cycle? (compounds, #C, and Apprev.)
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-fixation
-3 molecules of ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate (RuBP), 5 carbon compound are combines w/ 3 molecules of CO2 -produces 3 molecules of unstable intermediate that splits apart -yielding six molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA), 3 carbon compound |
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What occurs during stage 2 of the calvin cycle?(compounds, #C, and Apprev.)
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-reduction
-six molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA), 3 carbon compound are reduced to six molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL), 3 carbon compound |
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What is stage 3 of the calvin cycle? (compound, #C, apprev.)
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-regeneration of acceptor
-five of six glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL), 3 carbon molecule are combined and rearranged to form three five carbon molecules of 1,5 bisphophate (RuBP) -the one extra molecule of PGAL repesents the net gain from the calvin cycle. -It serves as the starting point for the synthesis of sugars, starch, and other cellular components |
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What is 3 ATP from light reactions used for in the calvin cycle?
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-stage 3 of the calvin cycle
-phosphate is separated for the regeneration of an acceptor -occurs when PGAL becomes RuBP |
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What is 6 ATP from light reactions used for in the calvin cycle?
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-stage 1 of the calvin cycle
-during fixation -when PGA is formed into 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate |
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What is the 6 NADPH used for in the calvin cyle?
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-stage 2 of the calvin cycle
-reduction -when 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phopshate |
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How many turns are there in the calvin cycle?
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-3 turns
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What is the 1st product of light-independent reactions of photosynthesis?
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-4C OAA (oxalo-acetic acid)
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What are examples of C4 plants?
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-corn, sugarcane, soybean, sorhum, "crabgrass", (late summer grass), tropical plants, mid-west to southwest plants and florida
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What occurs during the C4 pathway of carbon fixation?
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-carbon dioxide is fixeed towards 3 carbon phospho-enol-pyruvate (PEP) by the enzyme PEP carboxylase
-the resulting 4 carbon oxalo-acetic acic is then reduced to either 4 carbon malate or transaminated to 4 carbon aspartate -they each move into the bundle sheath cells where CO2 is released for use in the calvin cycle (C3 cycle) |
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What happens to the pyruvate that the CO2 was separated from in the C4 cycle of carbon fixation?
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-gets recycled and rearranged into phospho-enol-pyruvate
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Where does C4 metabolism of photosynthesis occur in plants?
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-spongy/palisade mesophyll
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Where does the C3 calvin cycle of photosynthesis occur?
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-surround vascular bundles
-more complex metabolic pathway than C3 calvin cycle, bcs adding steps |
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Why evolve the complexity of the carbon fixation cycle of photosyntheuss from C4 to C3?
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-PEP carboxylase has a high affinity for CO2 (higher than "Rubisco"), so can harvest CO2 better--> more efficent
-increased CO2 grabbing abilty, keeps stomata open less (less H2O loss) - PEP carboxylase has higher temp. optinum than rubisco -C4 better for dry environment -C4 plants are spacially separated |
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Why is the CAM pathway of photosynthesis named the way it is? (know spelling)
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-named b/c first plant in the family is "crassulaceae", "stone crops", desert plants
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What are exampls of CAM plants?
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US: cacti, "agave" cnetury plant, stone crops, pebble plants
African: Euphorbs Tropical epiphytes: Bromeliads, orchids -also pineapple |
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What is the CAM metabolic pathway?
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-modified "C4" pathway (temporal of C4 from C3) (otherwise same pathway as "C4")
-more sugar produced during the day (sweeter) -C4 during the night, stomata is open -stops at malate and stores this overnight -C3 calvin cycle occurs during the day, stomata is closed. |
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Where does sugar come from in plants?
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-light independent reactions
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Where does oxygen come from in plants?
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-from proteolysis and H2O, not CO2
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How does cellular aerobic respiration occur in plants?
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-1.2 of glucose a plant generats is used
-chemical equation photosyntheis backwards -provides CO2 for photosynthesis |
