Botany: Test 2

Front 1

Where does sexual reproduction occur in angiosperms?

Back 1

flower

Front 2

What does the process of sexual reproduction in angiosperms consist of?

Back 2

pollination --> movement of pollen from one plant to another

double fertilization --> ONLY in angiosperms; 2 sperms, 1 egg are used

Front 3

What are the 4 main parts of the flower and their functions?

Back 3

sepals = protection of young flower parts as they develop

petals = have secretory cells that give off scent to attract pollinators

carpels (pistil) = female part; stigma, style, ovary, ovule (inside ovary; turns into seeds; egg is inside

stamens = male part, filament, anther (where pollen is made, meiosis occurs, sperm also forms)

Front 4

What is a receptacle?

Back 4

the thickened part of a stem where the flower organs grow

a modified stem apex formed on a pedicel

the apex becomes flattened (receptacle) and leaf primordia are stimulated by plant hormones to develop into the four modified flower parts

Front 5

Which part of the flower eventually turns into petals?

Back 5

sepals, which are collectively called the calyx

Front 6

What is the first layer of leaves to form and carry out photosynthesis?

Back 6

sepals

Front 7

What is the order in which flower parts form?

Back 7

1. sepals (calyx)

2. petals (corolla)

3. stamens (androecium)

4. carpels/pistil (gynoecium)

Front 8

How many flower parts are in monocots? Dicots?

Back 8

monocots = 3, or multiples of 3

dicots = 4 or 5

Front 9

Meiosis consists of 2 divisions. Briefly describe them.

Back 9

1st cycle = reduction division; halves the number of chromosomes making the daughter cells haploid, when the parent cells were diploid

2nd cycle = mitotic division; most of the genetic recombination occurs

Front 10

Describe interphase I of meiosis.

Back 10

same as interphase of mitosis:

G1 phase --> the period before the synthesis of DNA; cell increases in mass for preparation of cell division

S phase --> DNA is synthesized (the "s" represents synthesis)

G2 phase --> cell synthesizes proteins and continues to increase in size

Front 11

Describe prophase I of meiosis.

Back 11

DNA condenses

nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear

homologous chromosomes pair up next to one another (synapsis); the 4 chromatids are now called a tetrad

Front 12

Describe anaphase I of meiosis.

Back 12

homologous chromosomes (pairs) or tetrads separate and are pulled to opposite poles

Front 13

Describe telophase I of meiosis.

Back 13

2 piles of chromosomes (each will only have 1 of each homolog--> haploid) complete their migration to the 2 poles

nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, spindle disappears

cytokinesis causes the cell to pinch into two

there are 2 chromosomes in each separated cell; 4 total chromatids; no homologous pairs at this time (they are haploid)

Front 14

Describe interphase II of meiosis.

Back 14

the cell has now divided into two identical daughter cells

stays in G1 stage, no DNA replication, remains the same, prepares for growth and division

Front 15

Describe prophase II of meiosis.

Back 15

nuclear envelope breaks done, nuclei disappears, spindle apparatus forms

centrioles duplicate

Front 16

Describe metaphase II of meiosis.

Back 16

each daughter cell forms a spindle

single chromosomes align on the metaphase plate (unlike metaphase I, in which homologous pairs of chromosomes align the metaphase plate)

Front 17

Describe anaphase II of meiosis.

Back 17

centromeres separate

two chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles on the spindle

the separated chromatids are now called chromosomes

Front 18

Describe telophase II of meiosis.

Back 18

nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes

cytokinesis takes place, producing 4 daughter cells (haploid)

half the number of chromosomes as the mother cell

Front 19

Describe prophase of mitosis.

Back 19

divides DNA into 2 piles

chromosomes become visible and coiled

nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear

mitotic spindle forms

Front 20

Describe metaphase of mitosis.

Back 20

centrosomes are at opposite ends of the cell

naked DNA

are most highly coiled and condensed, become arranged on the metaphase plate

Front 21

Describe anaphase of mitosis.

Back 21

sister chromatids are pulled apart and the chromosomes begin moving toward opposite poles of the cell

Front 22

Describe telophase of mitosis.

Back 22

nuclear envelope reforms around each chromosome set, nucleolus reforms

spindle disappears

cytokinesis (the division of cytoplasm) pinches the cell in two (2 nuclei at this point)

primary cell wall is also formed

Front 23

Describe interphase of mitosis.

Back 23

G1 --> cell grows and functions normally

(If the cell is not easy to divide, it enters G0)

S --> (synthesis) cell duplicates its DNA

G2 --> cell resumes growth and prepares for division

Front 24

Each cell in mitosis is ____________.

Back 24

diploid

Haploid cells are found in meiosis.

Front 25

What forms the metaphase plate?

Back 25

the cytoskeleton (microtubules, protein, and filaments)

Front 26

Describe daughter cells after mitosis.

Back 26

produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and the mother cell

diploid

Front 27

Describe daughter cells after meiosis.

Back 27

produces 4 daughter cells that have 1/2 the number of chromosomes as the mother cell

diploid --> haploid

2N --> N

Front 28

Which processes can diploid cells participate? haploid cells?

Back 28

diploid --> mitosis or meiosis

haploid --> mitosis

Front 29

What 3 homologous pair of chromosomes does the mother cell contain?

Back 29

allele pairs Aa, Bb, cc

Front 30

Describe metaphase I of meiosis.

Back 30

synapsid homologous chromosomes line up and become arranged on the metaphase plate

centrioles are at opposite ends of the pole

Front 31

Where are the male gametes and sperm formed?

Back 31

pollen grains

Front 32

Where are pollen grains developed?

Back 32

in the stamen (anther) portion of the flower

Front 33

Microsporangia are _________, while megasporangium are __________.

Back 33

microsporangia = male

megasporangium = female

Front 34

The mother cells undergo meiosis and therefore are ______________.

Back 34

diploid

Front 35

Microspores undergo mitosis only and therefore are ___________

Back 35

haploid

Microspores undergo mitosis to form pollen grain.

Front 36

How do sperm form?

Back 36

male gametophyte produces the sperm through mitosis in plants

Front 37

What are the 2 functional cells of pollen grain? Describe them.

Back 37

generative cell

tube cell

Front 38

Microspore mother cells produce microspores that develop into ________________.

Back 38

pollen grain

Front 39

How many microspores are produced from microspore mother cells?

Back 39

4 haploid microspores

Front 40

How many pollen grains are formed from 200 microspore mother cells?

Back 40

800

Front 41

What happens to the megaspores that survive and do not survive?

Back 41

The remaining 3/4 will become polar bodies and get absorbed by the egg.

The surviving megaspore will be haploid and is floating in the egg sac.

Front 42

Double fertilization occurs in all ___________________.

Back 42

angiosperms

Front 43

How many DNA molecules would be present during the G2 stage of the cell cycle?

Back 43

40

Front 44

How many chromosome pairs would be present during the prophase stage of the cell cycle?

Back 44

10 pairs (20 chromosomes)

Front 45

How many chromatids would be present during the metaphase stage of the cell cycle?

Back 45

40

Front 46

How many homologous pairs would be present during the metaphase stage of the cell cycle?

Back 46

10

Front 47

How many chromosomes would be present in each cell after cytokinesis during telophase?

Back 47

20

Front 48

How many DNA molecules would be present in each cell after cytokinesis during telophase?

Back 48

20

Front 49

Would the mother cell (cell during G1 stage) be diploid or haploid?

Back 49

diploid

Front 50

Would the two daughter cells formed after mitosis and cytokinesis be diploid or haploid?

Back 50

each would be diploid

Front 51

At which stage of meiosis do centromeres split allowing sister chromatids to move to opposite poles?

Back 51

anaphase II and anaphase of mitosis (not in anaphase I)

Front 52

Are the two cells formed during Telophase I of meiosis genetically alike?

Back 52

no

Front 53

Do the two cells formed during Telophase I of meiosis have the same number of chromosomes?

Back 53

yes

Front 54

Are the four cells formed during Telophase II genetically alike?

Back 54

no

Front 55

Do the four cells formed during Telophase II have the same number of chromosomes?

Back 55

yes

Front 56

How many tetrads would be present during Prophase I and Prophase II of the cell cycle?

Back 56

prophase I = 1

prophase II = 0

Front 57

What occurs during synapsis of prophase I of meiosis?

Back 57

homologous chromosomes wrap around one another and exchange segments of DNA (does not occur in mitosis)

Front 58

What is the term that describes the pint of attachment of a chromosome?

Back 58

kinetochore (centromere)

Front 59

The seed coat has the same genotype as the ____________.

Back 59

mother

Front 60

What are synergids?

Back 60

two specialized cells that lie adjacent to the egg cell in the female gametophyte of angiosperms

nourish the egg

guide the pollen nucleus toward the egg cell for fertilization

Front 61

Compare and contrast monocots and dicots.

Back 61

dicot = two cotyledons, leaf venation is netlike, vascular bundles in a ring, usually has taproots, floral parts usually in multiples of 4 or 5

monocot = one cotyledon, leaf venation is usually parallel, vascular bundles are complexly arranged, fibrous roots, floral parts usually in multiples of 3

Front 62

What is the term that describes the finger-like structures of the female gametophyte?

Back 62

integuments

Front 63

What is the nucellus of the female gamete?

Back 63

the tissue that develops into the embryo (megasporangium)

Front 64

How many haploid cells is the female gametophyte comprised of?

Back 64

8

Front 65

What do the polar nuclei of the female gametophyte develop into?

Back 65

the seed

Front 66

Everything formed by mitosis is ___________.

Back 66

diploid

Front 67

Describe double fertilization.

Back 67

involves 2 sperm cells-- one fertilizes the egg to form the zygote, one fuses with the 2 polar nuclei that form the endosperm

zygote and endosperm are resulted (not 2 zygotes)

Double fertilization occurs in all angiosperms.

Front 68

What is the function of the tube nucleus inside the pollen grain?

Back 68

forms a pollen tube when a pollen germinates on the stigma

the pollen tube then passes through the style to reach the ovary and the ovule towards the female gamete

Front 69

What is the function of the generative nucleus inside the pollen grain?

Back 69

divides by mitosis to form two haploid male gamete nuclei (two sperm nuclei)

Front 70

After the sperm are formed from the generative nucleus, what occurs?

Back 70

one sperm nucleus (N) fuses with the nucleus of the egg (N) to form the zygote (2N)

one sperm nucleus (N) fuses with the two polar nuclei (each N) to form the endosperm nucleus (3N).

This is called double fertilization.

Front 71

What does the zygote develop into? How?

Back 71

The zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo.

Front 72

List and describe the 3 parts of an embryo.

Back 72

cotyledon = (monocot has 1, dicot has 2)

epicotyl = develops above the cotyledon and forms the stem

hypocotyl = develops below the cotyledon and forms the root

Front 73

Generally, which types of plants have an endosperm?

Back 73

monocots (dicots usually do not)

Front 74

Gymnosperms lack double fertilization and therefore do not have an ______________.

Back 74

endosperm

Front 75

What is pollination

Back 75

the process of pollen moving from the anther to the stigma of the flower

Front 76

What are bisexual flowers and how are they pollinated?

Back 76

have both male (pollen-producing) and female (seed producing) parts

can be pollinated by--

inbreeding = selfing

outbreeding = auto-crossing

Front 77

What are unisexual flowers and how are they pollinated?

Back 77

have either stamens (male parts) or carpels (female parts) but not both

staminate = male

pistillate = female

can be pollinated by--

cross pollination

wind - small flowers, lacking sepals, small fruit and seeds

insects/animals - nectar, petals, odiferous, large flowers

Front 78

What does the endosperm nucleus develop into? How?

Back 78

endosperm = a tissue which will provide nourishment for germinating and growing embryo from a seed until it becomes autotrophic

dividing by mitosis

Front 79

What forms the seed coat surrounding the embryo and endosperm (if present)?

Back 79

integuments

Front 80

Why may a seed not have an endosperm?

Back 80

the cotyledon can absorb it after forming it

Front 81

List the parts of a seed.

Back 81

embryo (cotyledon, epicotyl, hypocotyl)

endosperm (if present)

seed coat (formed by integuments)

Front 82

How is a fruit formed?

Back 82

If the egg is fertilized and the ovule develops into a seed, plant hormones will be released by the ovule inducing the ovary to form a fruit.

Front 83

Fruits have the same genotype as the _____________.

Back 83

seed coat

Front 84

What are the three parts of a fruit?

Back 84

ectocarp = outer part; skin

mesocarp = middle part; fleshy

endocarp = inner part

Front 85

What is a simple fruit?

Back 85

a single ovary containing one or several fused carpels

a simple fruit is either fleshy or dry

Each bump on a raspberry is a simple fruit.

Front 86

What is an aggregate fruit?

Back 86

derived from a single flower

has many pistils (raspberries, black berries, strawberries)

Front 87

What is a multiple fruit?

Back 87

derived from many flowers (pineapples, mulberries, Osage orange)

Front 88

List and describe the simple fruits.

Back 88

berries = flesh is soft throughout (tomato, peppers, grapes)

drupes = inner part is hard or stony pit (peaches, cherries, plums)

pomes = fleshy part comes from floral parts and inner core is textured (apple, pear)

dry fruits = (grass seed, sunflower)

Front 89

From which flower part does the fruit develop?

Back 89

ovary

Front 90

From which flower part does the seed coat develop?

Back 90

integuments

Front 91

From which flower part does the embryo develop?

Back 91

the zygote divides by mitosis to form the embryo

Front 92

From which flower part does the endosperm develop?

Back 92

the endosperm nucleus (formed by combination of sperm and two polar nuclei)

Front 93

What will happen if the egg is not fertilized?

Back 93

in some cases the flower will fall off and no fruit will be produced

HOWEVER in some cases, if the egg is not fertilized the ovary can be forced to develop into a fruit by plant hormones--This results in seedless fruits.

ex: grapes, oranges, bananas, watermelons, pineapples

Front 94

How are parthenocarpic fruits formed?

Back 94

If the egg is not fertilized, the ovary can be forced to develop into fruit by plant hormones.

Front 95

What is the ploidy of a microspore?

Back 95

1N

Front 96

What is the ploidy of a megaspore mother cell?

Back 96

2N

Front 97

What is the ploidy of a zygote?

Back 97

2N

Front 98

What is the ploidy of a microspore?

Back 98

1N

Front 99

What is the ploidy of cells of cotyledon resulting embryo after double fertilization?

Back 99

2N

Front 100

What is the ploidy of cells of endosperm after double fertilization?

Back 100

3N (triploid)

Front 101

What is the ploidy of sepal cells of the female?

Back 101

2N

Front 102

What is the ploidy of pollen grain cells?

Back 102

1N

Front 103

What is the ploidy of the integuments?

Back 103

2N

Front 104

What is the ploidy of the seed coat?

Back 104

2N

Front 105

What is the ploidy of cells of fruit?

Back 105

2N

Front 106

What is the ploidy of polar nuclei?

Back 106

1N (each)

Front 107

What is the ploidy of a generative cell?

Back 107

1N

Front 108

What is the ploidy of an egg?

Back 108

1N

Front 109

What is the ploidy of a prophase I cell of meiosis in the egg sac?

Back 109

(synapsis occur during prophase I); tetrads

4N = polyploid

Front 110

What gender are polar nuclei?

Back 110

female

Front 111

What is the ploidy of a gametophyte?

Back 111

haploid

Front 112

What is the ploidy of a sporophyte?

Back 112

diploid

Front 113

What are the two multicellular structures in the life cycle of a plant? Describe.

Back 113

sporophyte generation = diploid portion (or triploid in the case of an angiosperm); makes spores

gametophyte generation = haploid portion; makes gametes (eggs/sperm)

Front 114

Describe the process of gametophyte generation.

Back 114

haploid

sexual reproduction

makes gametes (eggs/sperm)

begins with meiosis of the megaspore mother cell in the female/microspore mother cell in the male and ends with fertilization

Front 115

Describe the process of sporophyte generation.

Back 115

diploid (sometimes triploid = angiosperms)

makes spores

asexual reproduction

begins with fertilization and ends with meiosis in the anther (male) or ovary (female)

Front 116

Describe the life cycle for all plants.

Back 116

sporophyte (2N) --> mother cell (micro, mega, or plain) --> divides by mitosis to form gametophyte generation (1N) --> forms gametes by mitosis --> fertilization --> sporophyte generation (2N)

Front 117

What is a complete flower?

Back 117

contains all 4 flower parts (sepals, petals, stamens, carpels)

most common flower

Front 118

What is an incomplete flower?

Back 118

lacking any of the 4 flower parts

ex: tulips do not have sepals

If a flower does not have petals, it can be pollinated via wind.

Front 119

What is a perfect flower?

Back 119

contains at the least the stamen and the carpel (pistil)

considered "perfect" because they contain the material for reproduction

Front 120

What is an imperfect flower?

Back 120

contains either a stamen or carpel (pistil)

male = staminate flowers

female = carpellate flowers

Front 121

What is a monoecious plant?

Back 121

plant which contains imperfect flowers, both female and male, on the same plant

ex: corn

The PLANT is monoecious. The FLOWERS on the plant are incomplete, complete, etc.

Front 122

What is a dioecious plant?

Back 122

plant which contains imperfect flowers, male or female, flowers, on separate plants

ex: holly tree

The PLANT is dioecious. The FLOWERS on the plant are incomplete, complete, etc.

Front 123

What are the functions of leaves in plants?

Back 123

main organ containing chloroplast which directs the photosynthetic process

have a "blade" where photosynthesis occurs (also called palisade layer)

Front 124

What is a petiole?

Back 124

attaches the leaf to the stem

contains vascular tissue that provides a connection from the stem to permit sap to enter the leaf and the products of photosynthesis to be transported to the rest of the plant

Front 125

Describe abscission.

Back 125

an abscission layer forms at the base of petiole = of dead, thick cells that allows the leaf to separate from the plant

cells of the stem will have callused over, preventing water loss

abscission layer controlled by the plant hormone ethylene gas

Front 126

Which types of leaves drop seasonally?

Back 126

deciduous

Front 127

What is the role of the stoma in leaves?

Back 127

allow for gas exchange

opening and closing of the stoma are controlled by two guard cells

Guard cells and epidermal cells must be in a hypotonic solution in order to open.

Front 128

What are the uses of carbon dioxide and oxygen in leaves?

Back 128

CO2 from the atmosphere enters the leaf and is used for photosynthesis

oxygen gas (produced by photosynthesis) is released through the stoma

Front 129

What is secreted by the upper epidermis?

Back 129

cutin (a lot)

The lower epidermis does not. This explains the shiny/dull sides of a leaf.

Front 130

What are the zones of photosynthesizing tissue in the internal portion of leaves?

Back 130

mesophyll

Front 131

Describe the mesophyll.

Back 131

zones of photosynthesizing tissue:

palisade mesophyll = top of leaf; columnar shape; many chloroplast

spongy mesophyll = bottom of leaf; irregular shape; fewer chloroplast

Both are parenchyma cells.

Spongy mesophyll may also contain many chloroplast but palisade mesophyll will always have the majority.

Front 132

Describe the features of veins in the leaves.

Back 132

xylem = sits on top; conducts water into the leaf

phloem = right underneath the xylem; transports food from leaves to the rest of the plant

bundle sheath = surrounds xylem and phloem; very thick wall for support that binds cells together (collenchyma cells)

Front 133

What are sessile leaves?

Back 133

leaves lacking a petiole between the blade and stem; the blade is directly attached to the stem

ex: corn or grass

Front 134

What are xerophytic leaves?

Back 134

plants that are adapted to arid (dry, such as deserts) habitats

thick cuticle; multiple layers of epidermal cells; sunken stomata = stomata located in crypt or chamber with trichomes to prevent water loss (excellent adaptation for conservation of water in hot environments)

spongy parenchyma may have water stored in intercellular spaces

stoma located on the lower surface of the leaf

ex: aloe or jade plant

Front 135

What are hydrophytic leaves?

Back 135

plants that require a large supply of water or grow wholly or partly submerged in water

have a thin cuticle; stoma located on upper surface of the leaf; poorly developed xylem tissue

must have an extremely large amount of chloroplasts; spongy intercellular spaces contain air and allow them to float

actually live in water (eat grass, zastra) but are not marsh grasses

acts as a breeding ground for small critters in the ocean

ex: water lily

Front 136

What are mesophytic leaves?

Back 136

plants that require an environment that is neither too wet nor too dry

stoma located on both he upper and lower side of the leaf

ex: coleus

Front 137

What kind of plants are mesophytic, hydrophytic, and xerophytic leaves? How do we know this?

Back 137

angiosperms, because gymnosperms have needles in place of leaves

Front 138

Describe the structure of pine needles.

Back 138

epidermis

mesophyll

resin ducts

endodermis

xylem

phloem

Front 139

Why may some herbaceous plants only contain primary xylem and phloem which is derived from the primary meristem (procambium)?

Back 139

because herbaceous plants usually live for only one season

Front 140

How are plants that live for many seasons able to produce new xylem and phloem each season?

Back 140

via a vascular cambium that forms between the primary xylem and phloem

the vascular cambium produces secondary phloem to its outside and secondary xylem to its inside; this is called secondary growth

Front 141

Is secondary growth present in ferns?

Back 141

no

Front 142

Is secondary growth present in gymnosperms?

Back 142

yes; many gymnosperms are woody

Front 143

Is secondary growth present in dicots?

Back 143

present in woody; absent in many herbaceous (vegetables)

Front 144

Is secondary growth present in monocots?

Back 144

no

Front 145

Describe the production of cork from the cork cambium.

Back 145

Near the outside of the stem, the outer cortex cells may become meristematic and form a cork cambium which produces cork to the outside

Front 146

List the placement of secondary xylem and phloem, beginning with the epidermis.

Back 146

epidermis --> cortex --> primary phloem --> secondary phloem --> vascular cambium --> primary xylem --> secondary xylem --> pith

Front 147

Hardwood contains ___________ fibers.

Back 147

many (oak)

Front 148

Softwood contains ____________ fibers.

Back 148

fewer (pine)

Front 149

What are annual rings and how are they formed?

Back 149

late wood alternates with early wood, seasonal growth, or wet/dry cycles

due to seasonal growth of xylem cells

Front 150

What is heartwood?

Back 150

dead at maturity, inner wood, stores non-usable minerals

contains secondary xylem

Front 151

Heartwood and sapwood both contain ____________________.

Back 151

secondary xylem

Front 152

What is secondary xylem?

Back 152

wood

Front 153

What is secondary phloem?

Back 153

bark (and cork)

Front 154

What is sapwood?

Back 154

functional (living) part of wood, outermost portion of a woody stem or branch, nearest to the cambium

Front 155

Where is living secondary phloem located?

Back 155

nearest the cambium

Only the phloem nearest the cambium is functional.

Front 156

What makes up the outer bark (secondary phloem)?

Back 156

the cork cambium or phellogen and cork

Front 157

From where is early cork derived? Later cork?

Back 157

early cork = derived from epidermal cells or cortex cells

later cork = derived from parenchyma cells of phloem

Front 158

What are lenticels?

Back 158

openings in a woody stem that allow for gas exchange

allows bark to be permeable to oxygen

Front 159

What does periderm consist of?

Back 159

cork cambium, cork

Front 160

Roots on a ______________ tree will have bark.

Back 160

deciduous

Front 161

If bark (secondary phloem) is formed in roots, what is its function?

Back 161

to keep bacteria and fungi out

Front 162

What form of cells is secondary xylem composed of?

Back 162

mostly parenchyma cells and very little xylem

Front 163

Place the following tissues in the correct order starting from the inside moving to the outside of a woody stem.

Back 163

epidermis --> cork --> cork cambium --> cortex --> primary phloem --> secondary phloem --> vascular cambium --> secondary xylem --> primary xylem --> pith

Front 164

What is fasicular cambium?

Back 164

originates from procambium remains meristematic after it has produced primary vascular tissue; located within a vascular bundle

Front 165

What are the two types of cell initials in the vascular cambium? Describe them

Back 165

fusiform initials = vertically oriented; give rise to new phloem and xylem

ray initials = horizontal; make vascular rays of parenchyma, which functions to transport the water and sugars of the xylem and phloem